THE 

PEARL 

W.R. 
,  CATTELLE 


+~~t  /J, 

f 


THE    PEARL 


H.    M.    yUEEN    ALEXANDRA     AND     HER     PEARLS 


THE   PEARL 

ITS  STORY,  ITS  CHARM, 
AND  ITS  VALUE 


BY 

W.  R.  CATTELLE 

AUTHOR  OF 

"PRECIOUS  STONES" 


WITH  SIXTEEN  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PHILADELPHIA  W  LONDON 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 

MDCCCCVII 


COPYRIGHT,  1907 
BY  J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 

Published  September,  1907 


Eltttrotjfed  and.  printed  bj  J.  B.  Liffincctt  Company 
The  Washington  Squart  Prtss,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 


NOTE 

In  these  pages  the  story  of  the  pearl  is  told 
from  its  birth  and  growth  under  tropic  seas, 
through  the  search  for  it  by  dark  skinned  di- 
vers of  the  Orient  and  its  journeyings  by  the 
hands  of  men  who  traffic  in  precious  things, 
until  it  becomes  finally  the  cherished  familiar 
of  the  great.  Historical  and  traditional  allu- 
sions, the  sentiment  and  superstitions,  the 
romance  of  ancient  and  noble  associations, 
drawn  to  it  through  the  ages,  are  garnered  here 
and  to  them  added  the  more  prosaic  facts  which 
a  merchant's  experience  suggests,  to  enable 
lovers  of  the  dainty  sea-gem  to  discriminate. 
The  qualities  which  make  some  pearls  of  great 
value  and  the  imperfections  which  render 
others  less  valuable  are  described  in  detail, 
that  owners  and  buyers  may  appreciate  at  their 
true  value  the  gems  they  have  or  would  pur- 
chase and  the  market  price  of  all  kinds  is  given. 
Means  for  the  detection  of  imitations  are 
included. 

Long  time  has  been  given  to  microscopic 
research  and  though  much  remains  to  be  learned 
of  the  genesis  of  the  pearl,  it  is  hoped  that 


340133 


NOTE 

something  of  value  has  been  added  to  the 
knowledge  of  Nature's  wonderful  and  curious 
processes  whereby  through  the  humblest  she 
makes  a  jewel  fit  to  adorn  the  most  beautiful 
of  her  creatures — woman. 

My  thanks  are  due  Messrs.  Combes  &  Van 
Roden  of  Philadelphia  for  the  loan  of  the 
original  photographs  from  which  were  made  the 
reproductions  of  the  portraits  of  Queen  Alex- 
andra, The  Marchioness  of  Londonderry,  Coun- 
tess Torby  and  Princess  Lazareff,  which  will,  I 
trust,  be  of  great  interest  to  lovers  of  pearls: 
also  to  Mr.  Ludwig  Stress  for  much  valuable 
information  about  Oriental  pearl  fisheries. 

W.  R.  C. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

•'Ar  THE  BOTTOM  OP  THE  DEEP  BLUE  SEA 13 

A  PEARL  OP  LEGEND 25 

ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  PEARL 39 

THE  FASHION  OP  PEARLS 69 

VARIETIES 89 

COLOR ioi 

IMPERFECTIONS m 

GENESIS  OF  THE  PEARL 127 

-  METHODS  OF  FISHING 177 

HABITAT  OF  THE  PEARL  OYSTER 199 

PEARL  FISHERIES 211 

PRJCE 275 

IMITATION  AND  DOCTORED  PEARLS 295 

FACTS  AND  FANCIES 311 

PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 335 

GLOSSARY 363 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  PEARLS  AND  SHELLS 

FROM  THE  VARIOUS  FISHERIES 369 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

H.  M.  QUEEN  ALEXANDRA  AND  HER  PEARLS 

Frontispiece 

THE  RAJAH  OF  DHOLPUR 21 

Whose  pearls  have  been  valued  at  $7,500,000 

PRINCESS  ABAMALEK  LAZAREFF,  NEE  DEMIDOFF.  ...  70 

From  the  painting  by  Vitelleschi 

VARYING  FORMS  OF  PEARLS 83 

PANAMA     PEARL-SHELL,     SHOWING     MUD-BLISTERS, 

BORERS,  AND  PEARL 92 

TUAMOTU  PEARL-SHELL 127 

AUSTRALIAN  PEARL-SHELL 129 

VENEZUELAN  PEARL-SHELL  WITH  PEARL  ATTACHED  .  131 

MANILA  PEARL-SHELL  WITH  THE  LIP  CONSERVED  .  . .  144 

MISSISSIPPI  NlGGERHEAD  PEARL  MUSSEL 146 

VENEZUELAN  PEARL-SHELL  SHOWING  BAROQUE 161 

NATIVE  AUSTRALIAN  PEARL-DIVERS 188 

EAST  INDIAN  PEARL-DIVERS  RESTING 215 

PEARL-FISHING  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  RIVER 262 

THE  MARCHIONESS  OF  LONDONDERRY 283 

COUNTESS  TORBY 326 


AT  THE  BOTTOM   OF  THE 
DEEP  BLUE  SEA 


AT  THE  BOTTOM  OF  THE 
DEEP  BLUE  SEA 

THE  sea  in  all  her  moods  has  a  strange 
fascination  for  the  children  of  the  dry 
land.  The  rumble  and  thunder  of  her  never 
ending  procession  of  rolling  breakers,  rising 
and  falling,  tumbling  over  the  sands,  to  race 
hissing  back  to  shelter  under  the  curling  crest 
of  an  eternal  successor ;  the  mad  recurring  dash 
which  cannot  be  discouraged,  of  great  waters 
upon  unyielding  rocks  whose  grim  faces  smile  at 
the  spume  fountains  falling  back  upon  them; 
the  wash  and  mutter  of  rocky  shoals ;  the  suck 
and  bellow  of  her  caverns  and  the  monotone 
she  chants,  heedless  of  hearers  to  the  ages;  all 
these  charm  the  hearts  of  men  and  bring  them 
into  the  fellowship  of  spirits  they  feel,  but 
cannot  understand.  For  the  moods  of  the  sea 
and  the  ways  of  the  wind  are  akin  to  the  heart 
of  a  man.  His  eyes  dance  with  the  flicker  of 
light  in  the  path  of  the  sun  over  watery  wastes ; 
his  breast  heaves  in  unison  with  the  multi- 
is 


THE  PEARL 

tudinous  swellings  of  the  sea ;  he  finds  peace  in 
the  slumber  of  her  calms  and  exults  in  her  mad 
race  before  the  drive  of  the  tempest,  but  he 
seldom  thinks  below  the  surface  and  knows 
little  of  the  things  she  hides  in  her  deeps. 
Yet  a  world  lives  there,  very  strange  and 
full  of  enchantments.  Sheltered  under  the 
breasts  of  the  sea  and  undisturbed  by  the 
furies  of  the  upper  world,  myriads  of  living 
creatures,  graceful,  beautiful,  wonderful,  tra- 
verse the  peaceful  depths.  In  the  vast  and 
fathomless  solitudes,  things  grow  and  take  on 
form,  meet  for  the  eyes  of  the  gods.  In  ever- 
lasting touch  with  soft  currents,  trees  of  coral 
grow  from  rocky  beds  and  finny  tribes  of  every 
shape  and  hue  glide  in  and  out  among  their 
fantastic  branches.  Water  covering  all,  on 
hills,  plateaus,  shelving  stretches,  sandy  bars 
and  rocky  shoals;  in  valleys,  chasms  and  even 
in  the  dread  abysses,  are  things  as  strange  to 
man  as  Jupiter  or  Saturn  holds;  weird  as  the 
creatures  of  our  dreams;  uncanny  as  the  pic- 
tures a  riotous  imagination  paints  and  some  as 
beautiful. 

Near  the  shore  and  a  few  miles  out,  where  the 
14 


AT  THE  BOTTOM  OF   THE  SEA 

bottom  of  the  sea  is  but  a  few  fathoms  deep  and 
where  man  can  go  and  come  and  live,  there  are 
among  other  marvellous  creations,  shells  of 
wonderful  structure  and  beautiful  to  look  upon. 
One  by  one  these  have  been  discovered  during 
past  ages  by  the  adventurous  and  for  their 
usefulness  or  beauty  have  awakened  the  desire 
of  those  who  dwell  upon  the  earth.  The  chank, 
the  sacred  shell  of  the  Hindus,  has  been  used 
by  the  priests  of  Buddha  for  centuries  as  a 
horn  to  call  the  faithful.  Shankar  the  De- 
stroyer, of  Hindu  mythology,  and  Vishnu,  each 
hold  a  chank  shell  in  one  of  their  hands. 

The  shell  whorl  usually  runs  from  left  to 
right,  sometimes  it  is  found  with  the  whorl 
reversed  and  these  were  so  highly  regarded  by 
Hindus,  Cingalese  and  Chinese  that  in  old 
times  they  were  sold  for  their  weight  in  gold. 
Even  now  they  bring  a  good  price  in  the  eastern 
markets.  They  are  kept  in  the  pagodas  of 
China  to  hold  the  sacred  oil :  the  priests  of  Cey- 
lon administer  medicine  by  them.  In  Dacca 
the  chank  is  cut  into  armlets  and  anklets  for 
Hindu  women  upon  whose  persons  they  are 
left  after  death.  The  delicate  pink  cameos 


THE  PEARL 

carved  from  the  Queen  Conch  have  delighted 
feminine  eyes  of  almost  every  race.  The  Pearly 
Nautilus  decks  many  a  dainty  lady's  table 
and  is  wrought  into  a  thousand  quaint  conceits. 
The  silky  byssus  of  the  Pinna  has  been  woven 
into  fabrics  of  such  fineness  as  to  be  thought 
worthy  of  acceptance  by  Popes  and  princes. 

Before  Europe  knew  of  their  existence,  the 
people  of  China  and  Japan,  the  Maoris  of  New 
Zealand,  the  Indians  of  our  Pacific  coast  and  the 
brown  skinned  natives  of  far-off  islands  of  the 
Southern  Seas,  were  delighting  themselves  with 
the  magnificent  coloring  and  iridescence  of  the 
Haliotis  even  as  ancient  Greece  and  Rome  made 
ornaments  from  the  "Venus  Ear-shell,"  as 
they  called  it,  brought  from  the  ruder  coasts 
and  islands  further  west.  In  these  later  days 
the  costly  outer  garments  of  proud  dames  are 
ornamented  with  buttons  cut  from  the  same 
resplendent  shell.  But  of  all  the  beautiful 
things  old  ocean  pays  as  tribute  to  the  adven- 
turous spirit  of  man,  the  pearl-oyster  and  the 
gem  found  sometimes  in  it  are  most  precious. 

From  unknown  times  when  man  discovered 
them  until  now,  mother-of-pearl  shells  and 

16 


AT  THE   BOTTOM   OF  THE  SEA 

their  pearly  treasures  have  held  desire  con- 
stant and  the  eyes  of  modern  queens  brighten 
when  the  opening  of  the  gift  casket  reveals  a 
string  of  these  spheres  of  beauty  just  as  eyes 
did  in  the  far-off  Indies  thousands  of  years  ago. 
When  Europe  was  a  land  of  barbarians  and 
America  an  unknown  country  of  savages, 
dusky  fingers  that  held  the  life  and  destiny  of 
millions,  toyed  lovingly  with  pearls,  even  as 
now  the  favored  few  who  enter  the  sanctum 
sanctorum  of  fortune,  pride  themselves  in  the 
possession  of  them  and  find  pleasure  for  cloyed 
desire,  in  every  addition  to  their  store. 

In  all  ages,  pearls  have  been  the  social  insignia 
of  rank  among  the  highly  civilized.  No  other 
gem  was  so  abundantly  used  for  adornment  by 
the  princes  of  the  east.  Above  great  diamonds 
from  the  mines  of  India  or  glowing  rubies  from 
Burmah,  the  ocean  gem  became  peerless  among 
the  ancient  nations  of  Asia  and  as  their  power 
began  to  wane  and  the  tide  of  empire  swept 
westward,  there  went  with  it  the  love  of  pearls. 
The  rulers  of  Rome  when  she  was  Empress  of 
the  world  sought  pearls,  so  also  have  the  rich 

and  powerful  of  every  nation  as  it  rose  to  afHu- 

17 


THE  PEARL 

ence,  and  now  in  this  new  western  star  of 
Empire  the  men  who  hold  the  vast  wealth  of 
these  United  States  in  their  hands,  when  they 
place  their  consorts  on  the  last  plane  of  social 
eminence,  buy  pearls. 

Before  the  machine-like  system  of  modern 
industry  had  combined  ownership  and  seized 
the  vast  natural  reservoirs  which  hold  the  dia- 
monds of  Africa,  and  brought  the  output  to  a 
known  average  yield  of  so  many  carats  to  so 
many  loads,  and  established  the  cost  of  mining, 
washing,  shipping  and  marketing,  separately 
or  together,  to  the  fraction  of  a  penny,  there 
was  a  fascination  in  the  hunt  for  diamonds 
there,  the  charm  of  which  drew  thousands  to 
the  fields. 

From  the  discovery  of  them  as  baubles  in 
the  hands  of  children  and  the  Hottentots, 
or  plastered  in  the  mud  walls  of  Boer  farm- 
houses, through  the  search  for  them  along 
the  Vaal  River,  to  the  time  where  findings  led 
men  to  the  kopjes,  which  capped  the  great 
chimneys  of  diamond  bearing  clay,  where  they 
staked  and  worked  their  individual  claims,  the 
ever  present  hope  of  finding  a  royal  gem  among 

18 


AT  THE   BOTTOM   OF  THE  SEA 

the  small  stones  which  formed  the  every-day 
yield,  gave  edge  to  appetite  and  the  spur  to 
toil,  and  the  stories  of  fortunes  diverted  from 
one  man  to  another  by  the  lapse  of  a  few 
minutes  at  the  beginning  or  expiration  of  a 
lease,  or  by  the  line  separating  the  mining 
rights  of  one  from  another,  read  like  fairy  tales. 
More  exciting  yet  is  the  search  for  them 
when,  as  in  Brazil,  they  lie  scattered  over  the 
river  beds  where  one  man  hunts  in  vain  and  an- 
other by  chance  stumbles  upon  a  pocket  full, 
or  as  in  India,  where  one  must  dig  for  them 
blindly  into  detrital  matter  ten  or  twelve  feet 
under  a  later  covering  of  earth.  Who  has  not 
felt  the  stir  of  it  while  reading  of  miners  in 
Brazil  using  diamonds  worth  a  king's  ransom 
as  counters  in  their  games  of  chance,  or  of  a 
naked  Hindu,  emaciated  and  diseased  carrying 
about  his  person,  wrapped  in  a  bit  of  soiled 
cloth,  a  gem  found  by  chance  which  the  richest 
prince  of  India  would  covet.  So  also  do  the 
tales  of  rubies  brought  from  Death's  Valley  of 
Burmah  renew  within  us  the  glow  which  fired 
the  heart  of  youth  when  we  read  of  Aladdin 
and  his  lamp. 

19 


THE  PEARL 

But  none  of  these  are  so  redolent  of  romance 
as  the  story  of  the  pearl.  Beneath  the  rolling 
of  the  sea,  where  the  waves  pace  softly  and 
restlessly  like  caged  lions,  or  lift  themselves 
roaring  to  answer  the  voice  of  the  storm ;  where 
at  times  the  water  lies  green  and  placid  under 
burning  skies ;  at  times,  lashed  by  tornado  and 
monsoon,  becoming  a  seething  caldron  of  black 
perdition;  where  spice-laden  vessels  sail,  and 
where  in  the  old  days,  privateers  and  pirates 
lay  in  wait  for  prey,  there,  at  the  bottom  of  the 
sea,  unruffled  by  storm  or  pirate,  unmindful  of 
sun  and  calm,  myriads  of  delicate  creatures  toil 
ceaselessly  to  strew  old  ocean's  bed  with  gems. 
The  chaste  spheres  with  which  you  toy,  while 
counting  up  the  cost  of  hanging  them  round 
some  fair  neck,  at  one  time  lay  fathoms  deep, 
the  ocean  rolling  over  them.  Dusky  fishermen, 
at  risk  of  life,  brought  them  up  and  turbanned- 
merchants  gave  great  sums  of  money  to  own 
them;  ships  carried  them,  and  dealers  in 
precious  things  handled,  sorted,  examined  and 
matched  them,  ere  they  came  to  rest  in  fes- 
tooned rows  within  the  velvet  covers  your 
jeweller  opens  to  you. 

20 


THE     RAJAH     OF     DHOLPUR 

Whose  pearls  were  valued  at  $7,500,000 


AT  THE  BOTTOM   OF  THE  SEA 

On  almost  every  tropical  sea  that  washes  a 
shore  near  the  equator,  when  the  time  of 
storm  is  over,  boats  ride  over  the  shallows,  and 
men  dive  from  them  for  the  pearl  oyster 
as  they  have  done  for  ages.  Black  slaves  for 
Arab  masters  in  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Per- 
sian Gulf:  Tamil  and  Singhalese  in  the  In- 
dian waters:  Polynesians  about  the  islands 
of  the  South  Seas:  Indians  and  other  natives 
along  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  tropical 
America,  and  not  a  few  white  men  in  " dress" 
off  the  coasts  of  Australia.  Your  pearls  have 
seen  the  dusky  man-fish  come  silently  and 
swiftly  from  the  world  of  air  to  wrench  the 
gaping  shells  that  held  them,  from  their  anchor- 
age. It  may  be  your  pearl  lay  twenty  fathoms 
deep  in  the  clear  water  of  some  lonely  atoll  in 
the  great  Pacific,  among  branching  coral,  and> 
found  its  way  from  water's  solitudes  to  the 
light  of  the  Sun  and  admiring  eyes  by  the  hand 
of  a  bright-eyed  Polynesian.  It  may  have  come 
from  Egypt  or  the  Indies,  from  Australia  or 
Mexico;  but  from  whatever  quarter  of  the 
globe  it  came  and  by  whom,  it  was  born  and 
grew  somewhere  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

21 


A  PEARL  OF   LEGEND 


A  PEARL  OF  LEGEND 

Long  ago,  ere  the  great  Nations  of  Europe 
came  into  existence;  before  Rome  was,  or 
Greece  had  made  history:  when  the  power  of 
the  Earth  dwelt  in  the  lands  of  the  Sun  and 
was  for  good  or  evil  in  the  hands  of  princes, 
there  lived  in  Travancore  a  ruler  of  renown. 
Of  those  who  came  from  the  north,  he  with  his 
followers  had  subjugated  the  fierce  native  tribes 
inhabiting  the  country  for  many  miles  along 
the  seacoast  and  back  to  the  mountainous 
interior.  Over  all,  to  the  utmost  bounds  of  his 
territory,  the  land  was  fertile  and  very  beauti- 
ful. Along  the  shores,  but  a  short  distance  from 
the  ocean,  were  numerous  shallow  stretches  of 
water,  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  inland 
streams  with  the  swift  current  of  the  sea  which 
there  sweeps  the  coast.  In  them  fish  abounded, 
yet  were  they  free  from  the  dangers  of  the  outer 
waters,  so  that  young  and  old  could  there 
disport  themselves  without  fear.  Though  the 
tropic  heat  was  often  great  there  were  no 

25 


THE   PEARL 

parched  and  barren  wastes  in  the  land,  for  the 
rains  were  many  and  the  streams  which  ran 
to  the  sea  from  the  mountains  were  numerous. 
Everywhere  luxuriant  verdure  swayed  to 
breezes  that  played  to  and  fro  over  the  rolling 
lowlands  and  about  the  hillsides,  now  coming 
from  the  water  and  now  from  the  mountains. 
Coffee,  rice,  the  palm,  cocoa-nut,  the  areca-nut, 
the  pepper,  tamarind,  and  other  tropical  fruits 
and  trees  grew  in  rank  abundance,  and  huge 
forest  timbers  sheltered  many  noble  creatures 
of  the  wild. 

At  the  first  coming  of  this  prince,  fighting  was 
constant  and  bloody.  The  hill  tribes,  more 
war-like  than  those  of  many  lands,  made  fre- 
quent descents  from  their  fastnesses,  seeking  by 
every  ruse  of  barbarous  warfare  to  exterminate 
the  intruder.  But  this  man  was  wary  and 
alert.  Possessing  the  confidence  of  his  followers-, 
they  obeyed  him  with  unquestioning  obedience. 
Quick  to  move,  merciless  in  his  reprisals,  he 
was  soon  feared  by  all  the  surrounding  country 
and  as  it  became  known  that  he  was  also  just 
and  generous,  peace  presently  followed. 

Then  did  he  seek  to  establish  his  kingdom 
26 


A   PEARL  OF  LEGEND 

wisely  and  well.  He  encouraged  his  subjects  to 
cultivate  the  land,  to  fish  the  waters,  and  to 
trade  with  those  who  came  by  ship  and  over- 
land bringing  all  manner  of  things  for  barter. 

Though  he  and  his  people  were  devout 
believers  in  the  Veda,  yet  did  he  tolerate  the 
faith  of  others,  and  considered  the  low-born, 
for  Brahmanism  had  not  yet  established  the 
extremes  of  caste  which  came  later.  He  himself 
was  a  Kshattriya  but  he  ruled  the  Brahmans 
and  would  not  permit  injustice  to  the  Sudras, 
therefore  was  he  as  a  god  among  his  people. 

And  this  prince  was  good  to  look  upon.  Tall 
and  straight  as  a  tree  of  the  forest,  the  fine 
lines  of  his  grave  impassive  face  were  made 
alive  by  the  light  of  eyes  keen  as  an  eagle's, 
inscrutable  as  those  of  a  lion  when  he  looks 
beyond. 

One  son  only  had  he,  for  the  others  had  all 
fallen  in  battle.  The  son  was  like  the  sire,  and 
the  father's  heart  was  knit  to  him  as  steel  when 
it  is  welded. 

Now  the  time  came  when  it  was  good  that 
the  young  prince  should  marry,  for  he  was 
man-grown  and  had  been  invested  with  the 

27 


THE  PEARL 

sacrificial  cord.  So  the  prince  his  father  said  to 
him,  "  My  son,  thou  standest  alone  to  guard  the 
manes  of  thy  fathers.  It  is  meet  that  the  sons 
of  my  son  be  alive  upon  the  earth,  that  when  the 
time  is  come  I  die  in  peace  and  return  to  the 
place  from  whence  I  came,  in  confidence.  I 
will  find  for  thee  a  wife."  And  the  young 
prince  answered,  "Let  it  be  as  my  lord 
wills." 

Now  there  was  in  the  country  beyond  the 
hills,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  India,  a  prince 
whose  daughter  was  famed  for  her  beauty  and 
he  also  was  Kshattriya.  To  him  the  ruler  of 
Travancore  sent  certain  of  those  who  were  near 
him,  and  a  wise  priest  in  whom  he  had  great 
confidence,  to  treat  with  the  father  of  the  maid. 
And  these  when  they  had  arrived,  made  haste 
to  do  their  lord's  bidding,  nor  was  it  difficult  to 
obtain  his  desire,  for  the  prince  of  Travancore 
was  in  great  repute.  So  as  soon  as  could  be, 
the  maid  became  the  wife  of  the  heir  of 
Travancore. 

Report  had  not  lied  concerning  the  beauty  of 
the  girl,  and  such  other  qualities  had  she  that 
the  heart  of  her  husband  melted  to  her  and 

28 


A   PEARL  OF   LEGEND 

became  as  the  gold  of  a  jewel  when  it  holds  a 
ruby  most  precious. 

In  due  time  a  son  was  born  to  them,  and  the 
father  and  his  sire  and  all  the  people  with  them 
were  exceeding  glad,  for  said  they,  "Now  is 
wisdom  and  power  established  on  the  throne  of 
Travancore  and  a  son's  son  will  guard  the  name 
of  our  lord." 

Now  when  the  princess  was  a  maid  in  the 
land  of  her  father,  a  Rover  from  the  coast  of 
Kandy  had  greatly  desired  her,  and  when  she 
was  carried  away  to  Travancore  he  was  very 
wroth.  It  was  told  that  he  would  seek  ven- 
geance, but  another  year  passed  and  another 
son  came  and  both  the  children  and  the  mother 
thrived. 

But  one  day,  when  many  sea-boats  lay 
within  the  harbor  of  a  city  of  Travancore  where 
much  trading  was  done  with  men  who  came 
from  far-off  countries  and  when  multitudes  were 
gathered  there,  it  chanced  that  the  princess 
passed  by  the  market-place.  Suddenly,  a  great 
number  of  them  that  were  there  from  foreign 
shores,  gathered  together,  and  drawing  swords, 
rushed  upon  the  guards  which  accompanied 

29 


THE   PEARL 

her.  These,  with  the  bearers  they  overpowered, 
and  ere  the  bewildered  populace  knew  the 
meaning  of  the  tumult,  the  princess  was  dragged 
from  her  attendants  and  hurried  to  a  boat 
waiting  and  ready  to  sail.  Immediately  this 
glided  swiftly  toward  the  sea  followed  by  many 
others  manned  by  ruffians  who  had  lately 
mingled  with  the  men  on  shore  as  peaceful 
traders.  They  were  followers  of  the  Kandy 
Rover. 

In  a  very  little  while,  the  King,  with  the 
trusted  priest  of  his  household,  the  prince  and 
many  picked  men  of  the  King's  body-guard 
rode  furiously  to  the  water-side.  The  face  of 
the  King  was  very  stern,  but  only  in  the  flash- 
ings of  his  eyes  could  be  seen  the  unrelenting 
vengeance  which  moved  him.  Quietly  he  gave 
orders  to  man  his  ships  of  war.  Then  it  was 
found  that  every  one  of  them  had  been  damaged. 
Not  until  the  sailors  made  ready  to  sail  were 
the  hindrances  observable,  and  in  no  case  was 
the  evil  great,  or  so  that  it  could  not  be  pres- 
ently repaired,  for  fearing  discovery  the  doers 
of  it  sought  only  to  delay  the  sailing  of  the 
King's  ships,  as  the  ships  of  the  Rover  were 

30 


A   PEARL   OF  LEGEND 

swift,  and  after  they  were  out  of  the  harbor, 
Travancore  had  none  which  could  overtake 
them.  Then  was  the  wrath  of  the  King  terrible 
to  look  upon. 

Now  while  the  prince  and  his  followers  chafed, 
and  the  dismayed  populace  watched  the  work 
of  the  men  who  sought  to  make  the  boats  ready 
to  sail,  the  King  filled  them  with  the  fiercest  of 
his  soldiers,  being  resolved  that  if  the  pirate 
escaped  him  on  the  sea  he  would  follow  him 
to  his  lair  with  swift  and  overwhelming  ven- 
geance. While  these  things  were  being  done,  the 
Rover  passed  out  to  the  open  sea  and  in  sight 
of  all  the  people  turned  his  prows  to  the  south. 

Then  the  Brahman,  standing  where  the 
lapping  waters  encircled  his  feet,  stretched 
forth  his  hands  toward  the  white  sails  as  they 
spread  to  the  west  wind  and  called  upon  Shankar 
to  destroy  the  despoiler.  Immediately  the  wind 
died  out  and  the  ships  were  becalmed.  Then 
the  heart  of  the  King  swelled  with  fierce  joy. 

At  his  orders  all  the  lighter  boats  were  filled 
with  men  and  oars  were  provided  that  they 
might  row  to  the  attack,  and  the  young  prince 
stood  in  the  front  of  the  fastest  one.  But  while 

31 


THE   PEARL 

the  people  whetted  themselves  for  battle,  the 
Brahman  still  stood  and  prayed.  And  presently 
the  air  became  thick.  Though  no  clouds 
appeared  the  sky  faded  rapidly  from  sight,  and 
the  sun  could  no  more  be  seen  and  the  light  of 
it  was  as  the  color  of  fire  in  thick  smoke  only. 
Darkness  as  of  chaos  and  a  silence  like  that 
of  a  dead  world  encompassed  the  people,  and 
a  great  dread  gripped  them.  Suddenly  there 
came  from  the  sea  a  breath  of  sighing  broken 
by  sobs  very  heartrending,  and  this  was  followed 
by  the  sound  of  churning  and  lashing  water. 
Soon  a  furious  wind  swept  the  coast  in  gusts 
which  rested  only  that  they  might  gather 
strength  to  rage,  as  the  rush  of  rioters  is 
momentarily  stayed  between  whiles.  And  the 
black  air,  writhing  like  smoke,  was  driven 
hither  and  thither,  and  shaken  by  the  din  of 
thunder.  Fierce  lightnings  pierced  the  darkness 
and  in  passing  gave  lurid  glimpses  of  the  sea's 
frenzy  and  the  wind-swept  earth.  But  though 
the  storm  raged  so  that  the  roaring  sickened  the 
hearts  of  the  people,  the  Brahman  remained  un- 
moved, his  hands  stretched  toward  the  sea  where 
the  Rover  and  his  fleet  were  when  it  began. 

32 


A   PEARL  OF   LEGEND 

Presently  the  wind  passed,  and  the  people 
looking  seaward  saw  that  there  were  no  ships 
there,  but  the  foam  of  the  surf  was  black  with 
wreckage,  and  tossing  in  it  were  the  forms  of 
dead  men.  The  Rover  and  his  followers  had 
all  perished.  But  the  joy  of  the  King  and  his 
people  was  savage,  and  their  thoughts  were 
black,  for  the  princess  was  with  them  that  were 
destroyed.  Then  the  people  made  haste  to 
spread  themselves  along  the  coast  to  watch  if 
perchance  the  gods  might  cast  her  ashore  alive, 
but  no  living  thing  appeared,  neither  was  her 
body  seen. 

Now  while  these  things  were  being  done, 
great  clouds,  very  thick  and  black,  gathered, 
and  rolling  together,  poured  themselves  in 
torrents  into  the  sea.  So  thickly  did  the  rain 
fall  that  the  waves  were  beaten  down  and  the 
sea  became  as  a  threshing-floor  on  which  the 
rain  fell  white  and  hissing.  The  Brahman 
watching,  said  ''Behold!  the  Heavens  weep," 
and  turning,  he  went  straightway  to  the  temple. 

For  many  hours  thereafter  did  the  torrents  fall 
and  all  Travancore  mourned,  the  lamentations  of 
the  people  being  very  loud,  for  the  King  and  his 

3  33 


THE  PEARL 

son  were  much  beloved  and  it  was  known  that 
the  prince  was  sorely  distressed,  and  the  more  so 
that  his  sword  must  needs  be  idle  for  there  were 
none  left  upon  whom  he  could  take  vengeance. 
Now  when  the  elements  were  at  peace  again, 
the  King  gave  orders  that  certain  fishermen  of 
his  people  who  were  expert  divers,  should 
explore  the  bottom  of  the  sea  where  the  ships 
of  the  Rover  were  destroyed.  One  of  these 
discovered  the  body  of  the  princess  and  brought 
it  to  shore.  And  when  they  prepared  it  for 
burial,  the  women  found  fastened  upon  one  of 
the  hands  a  shell-fish,  the  two  shells  of  which 
had  closed  upon  a  finger  when  it  fell  between 
them  as  they  gaped.  And  when  the  shells 
were  pried  apart,  there  rolled  from  between 
them  a  round  bone,  white  and  shining,  yet  of  a 
luster  so  soft  and  beautiful  that  no  man  had 
seen  the  like.  And  the  Brahman  when  he  saw 
it  said,  "Herein  are  the  tears  of  Heaven  which 
fell  into  the  sea  congealed  and  have  become  a 
gem  which  is  beyond  price."  And  he  named  it 
"Pearl,"  and  carried  it  to  the  King.  Then  the 
King  after  he  had  heard  the  story  of  it,  sent  for 
the  chief  man  of  them  that  worked  in  gold  and 

34 


A   PEARL  OF   LEGEND 

commanded  him  that  he  make  for  the  pearl  a 
setting  most  precious,  and  when  it  was  done  he 
gave  it  to  the  prince  his  son  saying,  ''Above 
all  things  let  this  be  first  among  the  jewels  of 
Travancore  for-ever. "  And  the  prince  when 
he  looked  upon  it  said,  "The  beauty  of  it  is 
like  the  brightness  of  her  eyes  when  they  veiled 
themselves  before  my  passion,"  and  he  prized 
it  more  than  all  the  diamonds  and  rubies  in 
his  treasure-house. 

From  that  day,  when  the  fishermen  dived 
for  the  chank,  they  sought  also  for  shells  like 
unto  that  in  which  the  King's  pearl  was  found, 
and  after  great  rains  many  more  pearls  were 
brought  from  the  depths  of  the  sea,  and  fisher- 
men following  the  coast,  found  them  on  the 
shoals  between  India  and  Kandy  in  great  plenty. 
These  were  carried  to  the  King,  for  no  man 
dared  to  sell  them,  yet  did  the  King  reward  the 
finders  very  liberally.  So  the  store  of  them  in 
the  King's  treasury  grew,  and  for  that  there 
were  no  gems  like  them  in  all  the  earth,  the 
fame  of  them  spread,  and  travellers  came  from 
many  and  far-off  lands  to  look  upon  the  pearls 
of  Travancore. 

35 


ANTIQUITY   OF  THE    PEARL 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  PEARL 

How  long  the  pearl  has  been  used  as  a  jewel 
is  unknown.  It  is  seen  all  through  the  pages 
of  history,  from  the  long  ago  days  when  records 
were  inscribed  on  the  leaves  of  plants,  to  the 
rapid-fire  prints  of  to-day,  which  unceasingly 
scatter  to  myriads  the  knowledge  of  things  as 
they  occur. 

Back  of  history,  pearls  loom  everywhere  in 
the  mists  of  tradition  like  delicate  but  imperish- 
able orbs  of  beauty  set  in  the  smoulder  of  burned 
out  days  and  passions.  And  wherever  their 
tranquil  light  attracts  the  eye  of  imagination, 
the  ghosts  of  the  great  are  seen,  for  pearls  lie 
in  the  hair  of  royalty  and  clasp  the  fair  necks 
of  Queens.  Upon  them  shine  the  eyes  of 
turbanned  princes  who  valued  them  above  the 
blood  and  life  of  thousands  of  subjects.  Shades 
of  imperious  fingers,  long  since  fallen  to  the 
elements,  toy  with  them:  they  deck  the  spec- 
tral gatherings  of  the  mighty  in  all  lands  and 
ages,  and  there  is  no  dream  of  song  or  story 

39 


THE   PEARL 

which  does  not  hold  them  among  the  chief 
enchantments.  As  the  fair  moon  hangs  from 
the  brow  of  night  when  she  broods  over  lonely 
waters,  so  does  the  pearl  shine  in  the  shades  of 
the  ages. 

In  this  country  abundant  evidence  exists  that 
before  the  advent  of  the  white  man,  or  of  the 
red-skins  as  we  know  them,  the  aborigines, 
from  the  cold  rise  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  glades 
of  Florida,  used  them  for  their  adornment.  In 
savage  wilds,  and  on  coasts  that  knew  not  the 
sight  of  ships  or  other  shores,  copper-skinned 
natives  treasured  the  glistening  things  they 
found  in  the  mollusks  of  the  sea-shoals  and 
inland  streams.  Quantities  of  pearls  have  been 
found  in  the  Indian  mounds,  many  of  them 
loose,  others  strung  for  necklaces  and  wristlets, 
some  mounted  in  quaint  and  primitive  fashion, 
all  showing  that  in  the  days  of  unbroken  forests 
and  swarming  game  and  roving  tribes  of 
untrammeled  savages,  in  the  tepees  of  the 
braves,  their  queens  wore  pearls  even  as  they 
are  worn  now  by  fairer  successors  in  the  palaces 
reared  where  once  were  forests  and  camping- 
grounds.  In  those  days  the  savage  lords  of  the 

40 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE   PEARL 

undivided  earth  knew  nothing  of  whirring 
lathes  and  drills;  of  hardened  points  of  steel 
turning  with  lightning  rapidity  and  unerring 
precision.  Slowly  they  burned  a  way  through 
the  gem  with  hot  copper  wire,  destroying 
thereby  with  ruthless  ignorance  the  delicate 
beauty  of  jewels  fit  for  royalty.  To  them  the 
slender  prongs  of  gold  with  which  the  modern 
jeweller  holds  the  lustrous  balls,  uncovered  and 
in  safety,  were  unknown.  Instead,  the  savage 
set  them  in  holes  bored  in  the  teeth  of  animals, 
possibly  to  enhance  the  relics  of  a  great  fight 
with  some  fierce  beast  that  succumbed  finally 
to  his  prowess:  possibly  to  add  beauty  to  the 
grim  reminders  of  her  lord's  valor  when  he 
hung  them  round  the  neck  of  a  favored  mate. 
The  Indian  of  this  continent  was  much  more 
primitive  in  the  art  of  the  jeweller  than  in  the 
manufacture  of  implements  for  war  and  the 
chase.  Gaudy  colors  extracted  from  plants  and 
minerals  appealed  more  to  his  unthinking  eye 
than  a  chaste  form  of  beauty.  With  these  he 
could  stain  his  blankets,  record  on  skins  of 
slaughtered  animals  his  deeds,  or  paint  in 
hideous  signs  upon  his  face  the  malignancy  of 

41 


THE   PEARL 

war.  His  time  and  thought  and  ingenuity 
were  given  to  things  which  would  contribute  to 
his  master  passion  and  glorify  its  deeds.  The 
scalps  of  his  enemies,  the  skins  of  animals  he 
slaughtered,  the  feathers  of  birds  that  fell  to 
his  unerring  arrow,  the  teeth  of  bears  and 
mountain  lions  slain  in  desperate  encounters, 
these  were  his  jewels.  Nor  was  his  sexual 
instinct  sufficiently  refined  to  enthrone  his  mate. 
She  was  his  slave,  and  her  reward  for  toil  was 
pride  in  his  deeds  and  glory.  He  knew  little 
of  the  tender  homage  which  brings  gifts  and 
lays  them  at  the  feet  of  woman.  Instinctively 
he  made  a  setting  for  his  pearls  of  bears  teeth, 
that  they  might  carry  the  scent  of  blood  and 
tell  the  story  of  his  conquest.  Nevertheless, 
among  these  rude  tribes  of  wolfish  savages, 
sequestered  from  the  touch  of  other  people  more 
refined,  the  modest  pearl  found  favor,  and  in 
it  they  unconsciously  paid  tribute  to  one  of 
the  purest  forms  of  beauty.  But  even  this 
recognition  must  have  been  the  growth  of  years, 
possibly  of  ages,  for  not  until  the  understanding 
of  worth  has  become  general  among  a  people  is 
value  established,  and  only  things  valuable  are 

42 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE   PEARL 

stored.  As  desire  for  a  thing  for  its  inherent 
qualities  spreads,  there  is  added  a  larger  number 
of  those  who  seek  to  possess  it  for  the  profit 
they  can  make  in  supplying  that  desire.  Not 
many  years  ago,  fishermen  along  the  streams  of 
remote  parts  of  Kentucky  had  no  eye  for  the 
beauty  of  a  pearl,  and  no  knowledge  that  men 
and  women  lived  who  prized  them.  If  while 
fishing,  the  fisherman's  hook  fell  between  the 
gaping  valves  of  a  mollusk  it  was  immediately 
seized.  The  disgusted  angler  thereupon  angrily 
pulled  the  nuisance  out,  and  if  upon  disengaging 
the  hook  from  the  bivalve,  he  found  within  the 
shells  a  pearl,  it  was  immediately  tossed  back 
into  the  stream  for  luck;  for  the  beginning  of 
a  day's  sport  with  a  catch  of  that  kind  was  ill- 
luck  and  the  fates  could  only  be  appeased  by 
the  rinding  of  a  pearl,  or  a  " mussel  egg"  as 
he  would  call  it,  in  the  mollusk,  and  its  return 
to  the  water.  There  lives  yet  on  the  banks  of 
the  Clinch  River,  an  old  pearler,  the  distress  of 
many  a  speculator  for  his  knowledge  of  pearls 
and  their  value,  who  sometimes  sorrowfully 
relates  how  he  thus  in  bygone  years  angrily 
threw  away  many  good  pearls,  one  of  them  the 

43 


THE   PEARL 

finest  "ball"  pearl  he  has  ever  seen.  If  these 
gems  were  so  regarded  by  the  ignorant  white 
settlers  of  the  west  until  the  advent  of  men  who 
had  learned  to  appreciate  them  either  for  their 
beauty  or  the  price  they  would  bring  from  the 
outside  world,  it  may  be  surmised  that  the 
awakening  of  the  ancient  Indian  to  their  beauty, 
must  have  been  a  much  slower  process,  unas- 
sisted as  it  was  by  men  from  beyond  their 
limits  who  had  long  regarded  them  as  precious. 
At  first,  probably,  pearls  were  thrown  to  the 
children  as  playthings,  as  diamonds  were  in 
the  Cape:  then  the  young  squaws  gradually 
opened  their  eyes  to  the  fact  that  the  white 
shining  things  enhanced  the  charms  of  their 
smooth  copper  skins  by  contrast:  the  brave 
sought  them  to  please  the  maid  he  would  bring 
to  his  tepee :  perhaps  rovers  brought  news  that 
in  the  far  south,  in  lands  of  houses  and  teocalli 
and  much  magnificence,  or  farther  off  among  the 
Incas,  these  baubles  were  prized  by  the  chiefs. 
So  gradually  it  dawned  upon  some  that  the 
" eggs"  of  the  mollusk  were  beautiful,  and  upon 
others  that  they  could  be  bartered  for  skins, 
blankets,  or  arrows,  possibly  for  a  pony,  and 

44 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE   PEARL 

so  they  came  to  be  gathered  and  stored  and 
displayed  as  things  which  enriched  the  owner. 
How  far  back  in  the  ages  the  use  of  pearls 
on  this  continent  extends  cannot  be  estimated. 
The  discovery  of  them  in  the  mounds  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  which  are  credited  to  an  ancient 
race  that  finally  succumbed  to  the  similar  but 
more  warlike  red  men  found  here  when  the 
country  was  discovered  by  Europeans,  suggests 
many  centuries.  And  the  use  of  pearls  to  the 
extent  manifest  by  the  discoveries,  favors  the 
theory  that  the  mound-builders  had  reached  a 
degree  of  refinement  never  attained  by  the 
North  American  Indians  of  record.  When  white 
men  invaded  the  North  American  continent, 
they  found  tribes  of  red  men  as  rugged  as  the 
coasts  of  New  England.  Inured  to  hardships, 
despising  pain,  contemptuous  of  death,  they 
lived  by  hunting  and  found  their  chief  pleasure 
in  the  slaughter  "of  their  enemies.  Camping  at 
will,  their  lodges  were  here  to-day  ^nd  there 
to-morrow,  and  brutal  if  heroic,  they  roamed 
over  fields  once  inhabited  by  a  race  which  had 
passed,  but  left  evidence  that  they  were  suf- 
ficiently civilized  to  appreciate  the  pearl. 

45 


THE   PEARL 

In  Florida  and  South  America,  the  conditions, 
when  the  country  was  discovered  by  the 
Spaniards,  were  different.  The  ancient  races, 
corresponding  with  the  mound-builders  of  the 
north,  undisturbed  by  the  incursions  of  stronger 
tribes,  had  continued  to  progress  and  had 
reached  a  high  degree  of  barbarous  luxury. 

In  Mexico,  when  Montezuma  gave  audience 
to  Cortez,  he  was  ablaze  with  gold  and  silver 
and  precious  stones.  His  cloak  and  sandals 
were  adorned  with  pearls.  Pearls  were  used  to 
decorate  temples,  canoes  and  even  the  paddles. 
Indian  women  had  great  strings  of  them  coiled 
around  their  necks  and  arms,  and  the  chiefs 
used  them  freely  on  all  occasions  of  state.  It 
was.  the  same  on  the  Colombian  coasts. 

At  the  island  of  Cubagua  and  on  the  main 
coast,  Columbus  found  great  quantities  of  pearls, 
as  did  De  Soto  and  his  followers  when  they 
landed  at  Tampa  Bay,  known  by  the  Spaniards 
as ' '  Spiritu  Santo, ' '  in  Florida  in  1 5 3 9 .  The  Incas 
of.  Peru  also  owned  many  fine  pearls.  Though 
the"  natives  of  all  these  countries  ignorantly 
injured  the  gems  by  cooking  the  oyster  to 
extract  them,  or  by  their  crude  methods  of 

46 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  PEARL 

boring,  and  reckoned  them  of  little  value  as 
compared  with  the  European  idea,  they  never- 
theless esteemed  them  as  jewels  and  must  have 
done  so  for  ages,  for  the  invaders  found  them  in 
the  sepulchres  of  the  dead,  so  altered  by  the 
processes  of  time  that  they  retained  nothing  of 
their  original  beauty. 

From  these  premises  therefore  it  can  be  said    \ 
of  the  antiquity  of  the  pearl  in  this  hemisphere, 
that  it  had  been  used  as  a  jewel  for  some 
centuries  before  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 

The  European  regard  for  the  pearl  at  this 
time  may  be  estimated  by  the  eagerness  with 
which  pearls  were  sought  on  the  American 
continent  by  the  adventurers  of  Spain,  and  by 
the  pains  they  took  on  the  arrival  here  of  a  new 
expedition,  to  convey  assurances  to  the  King 
of  Spain  that  pearls  were  to  be  had  in  the  new 
conquest.  In  the  commission  appointing  De 
Soto  to  the  governorship  of  Cuba,  and  as 
adelantado  of  Florida,  Charles  V.  stipulated  that 
of  the  gold,  silver,  stones  and  pearls,  obtained 
by  barter  or  in  battle  or  otherwise,  a  certain 
portion  should  be  reserved  for  the  Crown. 

47 


THE   PEARL 

In  all  the  courts  of  Europe  during  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  the  pearl  was, 
if  not  the  chief,  one  of  the  most  prominent 
jewels.  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  possessed  a 
rosary  of  pearls  which  excited  the  envy  of 
Catherine  de  Medicis  and  Elizabeth  of  England, 
both  of  whom  sought  diligently  to  acquire  them 
when  the  Scotch  Queen  became  mired  by 
misfortune. 

The  virgin  queen  of  England  when  she 
went  in  state  to  chapel,  wore  pendent  pearls 
in  her  ears  after  the  fashion  of  Rome,  and 
borders  of  large  pearls  fastened  on  her  dress. 
When  in  her  time  Sir  Thomas  Gresham  of 
London,  a  wealthy  subject,  wished  to  show  the 
Spanish  Ambassador,  who  had  boasted  of  the 
magnificence  of  his  Sovereign's  court,  how 
prodigal  her  liege  subjects  could  be  in  her  honor, 
nothing  occurred  to  him  more  striking  than  to 
grind  to  powder  a  large  pearl  and  mix  it  with 
the  wine  he  drank  to  her  health.  This  act  of 
the  English  merchant  shows  that  the  pearl  was 
then  regarded  by  the  great  as  the  acme  of 
costliness  and  beauty. 

From  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  of  France  to  that 
48 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE   PEARL 

of  Louis  XIII.  the  pearl  was  prominent  in  all 
jewels  of  note,  and  from  that  time  to  the  death 
of  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria  toward  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  it  was  worn  in  prefer- 
ence to  all  other  gems.  It  was  during  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIII.  that  Ta vernier,  the  celebrated 
French  Jeweller  and  traveller,  assisted  by  that 
monarch,  made  his  journeys  into  Asia.  /.The 
account  of  his  travels,  published  later,  are 
highly  esteemed  for  their  truthfulness,  and  are 
regarded  as  exact,  if  prosaic  statements  of  fact. 
The  desire  for  the  gem  in  Europe  at  this  time' 
was  so  great  that  Ta  vernier  purchased  over  half 
a  million  dollars*  worth  from"  the  Arabian  Sea. 
Probably  the  immense  quantities  of  pearls  sent 
to  Spain  from  the  Indies  by  her  rovers  in  the 
early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  caused  the 
vogue  of  that  gem  during  the  three  centuries 
following,  for  not  much  mention  is  made  of  ; 
them  in  western  Europe  prior  to  that  time. 
Nevertheless  pearls  were  esteemed  in  the 
British  Isles  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century, 
for  it  is  recorded  that  Gilbert,  Bishop  of 
Limerick,  sent  a  present  of  Irish  pearls  from 
the  fishery  at  Omagh,  to  Anselm,  Archbishop  of 

4  49 


THE  PEARL 

Canterbury,  about  1094,  and  Scotch  pearls  were 
not  only  in  demand  in  Britain  but  on  the 
continent  also  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century. 
In  1355,  the  Parisian  goldsmiths  forbade  by 
statute,  workers  in  gold  and  silver  to  set  Scotch 
pearls  with  the  Oriental. 
-The  Oriental  pearl  probably  came  into 
lurope  first  from  Egypt  through  the  incursions 
>f  the  Macedonians  into  that  country.  Later, 
when  Alexander  overran  Persia  his  followers 
doubtless  became  yet  more  familiar  with  the 
gem,  for  they  spread  through  Arabia  and  the 
Persian  Gulf  where  ancient  fisheries  also  existed. 
Pearls  were  not  well  known  west  and  north  of 
Asia  and  Africa  at  this  time,  for  a  writer  of 
Mytilene  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  about  350  B.  C., 
which  was  but  a  few  years  before  Alexander's 
conquest  of  Persia,  says:  "In  the  Indian  Sea, 
off  the  coasts  of  Armenia,  Persia,  Susiana  and 
Babylonia,  a  fish  like  an  oyster  is  caught,  from 
the  flesh  of  which  men  pick  out  white  bones 
called  by  them  *  pearls'."  This  would  indicate 
that  knowledge  of  them  was  being  carried  at 
that  time  by  returning  soldiers,  camp-followers 
and  travellers,  and  these  men  probably  brought 

50 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  PEARL 

home  also  many  of  the  "  white  bones"  obtained 
by  trade  or  looting.  Whatever  the  method  by 
which  they  were  introduced,  pearls  came  into 
favor,  and  the  favor  increased  as  they  were 
brought  with  other  jewels  from  the  looted 
treasuries  of  eastern  potentates.  The  Mace- 
donians established  fisheries  in  the  Red  Sea, 
where  the  Egyptians  obtained  their  chief  supply, 
and  the  Romans  later  brought  them  also  from 
the  Arabian  Sea. 

Three  centuries  B.  C.,  the  power  of  the 
Macedonians  commenced  to  wane ;  Rome  began 
to  rise  and  overrun  the  countries  which  had 
been  subject  to  the  Macedonians;  and  pearls 
were  thereby  carried  further  west.  The  Romans 
adopted  the  pearl  as  a  jewel  of  the  first  impor- 
tance if  not  the  chief  of  all,  probably  because 
they  had  found  them  so  regarded  by  the  older 
royalties  they  plundered.  As  the  riches  of 
surrounding  and  far-off  countries  which  she 
raided,  poured  into  the  coffers  of  Rome,  and 
the  city  grew  to  be  the  centre  of  power  and 
wealth,  the  excesses  of  the  rich  became  ludi- 
crous to  the  verge  of  insanity.  In  their  wild 
extravagances  the  pearl  was  prominent. 


THE   PEARL 

Affected  doubtless  by  the  splendor  of  Asiatic 
courts,  the  rude  soldiers  of  Rome  learned  to 
regard  the  pearl  as  a  royal  luxury,  and  therefore 
adopted  it  as  a  sign  of  great  wealth  and  power. 
Enormous  sums  were  paid  for  pearls  of  rare  size 
and  beauty.  Great  leaders  of  men  vied  with 
each  other  in  the  effort  to  add  to  their  col- 
lections. It  is  said  that  Julius  Caesar's  chief 
incentive  for  pushing  his  conquests  into  the 
west  so  far,  was  his  desire  to  obtain  the  pearls 
to.be  found  in  the  streams  of  the  British  Isles. 
The  Emperor  Caligula  decked  his  favorite 
l^horse  with  a  necklace  of  pearls.  Pliny  says  of 
Lollia  Paulina,  Caligula's  wife,  that  he  had  seen 
her  so  bedecked  with  pearls  and  precious  stones 
that  "she  glittered  and  shone  like  the  sun  as 
she  went."  Clodius,  the  glutton,  claiming  for 
them  a  very  delicate  flavor,  placed  one  by  the 
plate  of  each  guest  at  a  great  banquet  to  be 
mixed  with  the  wine.  This  same  profligate, 
either  setting  the  example  or  emulating 
Cleopatra,  swallowed  in  a  cup  of  wine  one  worth 
eight  thousand  pounds  that  he  might  have  the 
pleasure  of  consuming  so  much  value  at  once. 
If  in  the  intrigues  so  common  then,  a  woman's 

52 


ANTIQUITY   OF  THE   PEARL 

influence  was  required,  pearls  were  given  her. 
To  convey  an  indirect  bribe  to  a  man  of  high 
station  a  pearl  of  great  price  was  presented  to 
a  member  of  his  family.  Women  wore  them 
while  they  slept  that  they  might  possess  them 
in  their  dreams;  they  hung  them  in  loose 
clusters  suspended  from  the  ears,  that  the 
tinkling  might  remind  them  of  the  beauty  they 
could  not  see,  and  to  attract  the  admiration 
and  envy  of  others.  These  were  called  "cro- 
talia,"  meaning  "rattles."  Young  men  of 
fortune  in  Athens  and  Rome  followed  the 
Persian  fashion  of  wearing  one  in  the  right  ear, 
hung  as  a  clapper  in  a  small  bell  of  metal.  So 
strong  and  general  did  the  desire  to  own  them 
become  that  Csesar  forbade  unmarried  women, 
and  women  under  a  certain  rank,  to  wear  them. 
Perhaps  never  in  the  history  of  jewels  has  the 
vogue  of  one  so  nearly  approached  a  frenzy  as 
that  of  the  pearl  in  Rome  during  her  days  o|/ 
extreme  power  and  grandeur.  •^THe"higH"esteem 
in  which  it  was  held  there  is  reflected  in  the 
Scriptures.  The  Saviour  used  it  in  His  parables 
as  a  symbol.  The  gates  of  the  Holy  City,  as  L 
the  prophet  John  saw  it  in  his  vision,  were  I 

S3 


THE   PEARL 

/ — - 

;  pearls.  From  that  time  until  now,  writers  have 
used  pearls  to  symbolize  purity,  innocence  and 
the  highest  type  of  feminine  beauty.  To  say 
that  a  woman's  teeth  were  like  pearls  has  been 
the  poets'  favorite  adulation,  and  the  discovery 
and  sale  of  great  pearls  has  been  deemed  of 
sufficient  importance  by  travellers  and  his- 
torians to  record  them. 

Much  of  the  literature  of  pearls  is  founded  on 
the  statements  of  Pliny  regarding  them :  many, 
if  not  most,  of  the  absurd  beliefs  as  to  their 
origin  and  superstitions  concerning  them,  may 
be  traced  to  the  same  source ;  and  though  these 
ancient  errors  have  been  repeatedly  exposed  by 
later  scientists  and  naturalists  the  poetic  absurd- 
ities of  the  industrious  Roman  compiler,  gath- 
ered from  contemporaneous  writers  and  tra- 
dition are  current  to-day,  for  they  appeal  more 
to  the  child-like  human  love  of  the  indefinite 
wonderful  than  the  exact  statements  of  re- 
search, though  the  latter  are  really  more 
marvellous. 

Though  jewels  are  regarded  by  many  as 
baubles  and  of  little  account  among  the  great 
commercial  interests  of  the  world,  they  have 

54 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  PEARL 

been  an  important  factor  in  shaping  the  destiny 
of  nations,  changing  the  borders  of  great 
countries  and  thereby  aiding  the  progress  of 
civilization.  As  pearls  helped  materially  to 
bring  Rome  to  the  British  Isles  and  the  colo- 
nists of  Spain  to  South  America,  so  it  is  quite 
probable  that  the  pearls  of  Egypt  had  their 
influence  in  drawing  the  Macedonians  to  that 
country,  to  be  followed  by  the  Romans  when 
the  latter  sought  to  overturn  the  Macedonian 
empire.  Beyond  this,  their  influence  among 
those  who  held  the  reins  in  the  government  of 
empires,  or  those  having  power  with  them  that 
did,  cannot  be  estimated. 

Passing  beyond  the  days  of  Greece  and  Rome 
to  more  remote  times  and  countries,  we  come  to 
the  realms  of  conjecture.  We  know  that  pearls 
were  knowrn  and  used  as  jewels  in  Egypt  under 
the  Ptolemies.  Chares  of  Mytilene  mentioned 
that  they  were  worn  by  women  of  the  East 
about  the  neck  and  arms  and  even  upon  the 
feet.  It  is  said,  there  is  a  word  for  them  in  a  } 
Chinese  dictionary  four  thousand  years  old. 

There  is  evidence  that  they  had  been  used  in 
India  and  the  far  East  long  before  the  West  had 

55 


THE  PEARL 

knowledge  of  those  countries,  but  we  have 
nothing  recorded  which  penetrates  the  past 
beyond  three  to  four  hundred  years  B.  C.,  for 
there  is  not  as  much  mention  made  of  them  in 
ancient  writings  familiar  to  the  West  as  of 
other  precious  stones.  Nevertheless  the  pearl  is 
among  the  most  ancient  in  the  nomenclature  of 
jewels  because  when  it  did  come  to  be  written 
of  only  the  one  thing  could  be  meant.  Nature 
produces  nothing  similar  with  which  it  could  be 
confounded,  whereas  it  is  not  certain  that  the 
diamond,  ruby,  and  other  stones  as  we  know 
them,  were  intended  when  the  names  by  which 
we  designate  them  were  used.  Such  indis- 
criminate use  of  names  has  been  made  by 
translators  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  what 
the  stones  really  were  about  which  ancient 
authors  wrote.  The  names  of  those  in  the 
Jewish  High  Priest's  breastplate,  given  in  our 
English  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  undoubt- 
edly misrepresent  the  stones  actually  used,  and 
the  only  thing  authorities  agree  upon  regarding 
the  names  is  that  they  are  incorrect. 

As  there  was  no  definite  knowledge  of  the 
crystallography   and    chemistry  of    stones  in 

56 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  PEARL 

the  old  days,  writers  referred  to  them  often 
in  general  terms  rather  than  by  specific  names, 
and  these  were  translated  into  the  names  of 
later  times  according  to  the  understanding 
of  the  translator,  who  had  neither  expert 
knowledge  of  his  own  nor  reliable  litera- 
ture from  which  to  gather  information  or 
guidance.  An  illustration  of  this  general  con- 
fusion occurs  in  the  book  of  Job  XXVIII.  18. 
It  is  written  there,  "No  mention  shall  be  made 
of  coral,  or  of  pearls ;  for  the  price  of  wisdom  is 
above  rubies."  Scholars  tell  us  that  the  words 
translated  here  "coral"  and  "pearls,"  signify 
"found  in  high  places,"  and  are  thought  to  be 
precious  stones  though  the  variety  is  unknown. 
The  Targum  renders  the  first  "  Sandalchin, " 
probably  our  sardonyx.  Junius  and  Tremellius 
translated  it  "Sandaztros"  in  their  Latin  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament,  whereas  Pliny 
described  it  as  a  sort  of  carbuncle  having  shining 
golden  drops  in  the  body  of  it. 

After  the  same  manner  the  last  sentence,  "  For 
the  price  of  wisdom  is  above  rubies  "  is  rendered 
by  the  great  oriental  scholar  Bochart,  "The 
extraction  of  wisdom  is  greater  than  the  extrac- 

57 


THE   PEARL 

tion  of  pearls,"  and  other  authorities  agree  with 
him. 

Although  there  is  evidence  that  many  if  not 
all  the  precious  stones  of  to-day  were  known 
and  used  by  the  ancients,  it  is  equally  evident 
that  they  were  much  confounded  and  very 
roughly  classified  by  general  appearance  only, 
and  as  various  peoples  gave  them  different 
names,  all  records  of  them  are  as  misleading  as 
the  recorders  were  ignorant  of  their  differential 
qualities.  Even  with  the  rapid  increase  of 
knowledge  in  the  last  few  centuries,  not  until 
quite  lately  has  science  drawn  the  lines  clearly 
between  stones  similar  in  appearance  though 
essentially  different  and  furnished  means  for  the 
detection  of  those  inherent  differences.  It  is 
impossible  therefore  to  learn  by  ancient  writ- 
ings how  long  any  of  the  precious  stones  have 
been  known  and  used  as  jewels,  for  we  do  npt 
know  positively  what  the  stone  was  by  the  name 
given  in  old  writings  or  by  the  translator  of 
them.  The  pearl  only  has  not  been  thus  gener- 
ally confounded  with  other  gems. 

Once  only  are  pearls  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament — the  instance  quoted  from  the  book 

58 


ANTIQUITY   OF  THE   PEARL 

of  Job.  It  would  seem  therefore,  that  although 
used  as  jewels,  they  were  not  regarded  as  of 
great  value  in  the  East  prior  to  about  400 
years  B.  C.,  at  which  time  the  last  of  the  sacred 
Jewish  books  is  supposed  to  have  been  written. 
True,  royalty  wore  them  in  Egypt  and  the 
people  of  Persia  and  Arabia  used  them  very 
generally  for  personal  adornment;  but  they 
were  abundant  in  those  countries  and  there  had 
been  no  demand  for  them  beyond  their  borders, 
therefore,  though  beautiful,  they  were  common 
and  not  appreciated  fully.  Upon  the  influx  of 
foreign  invaders  from  shores  that  yielded  no 
such  gems  their  status  changed  rapidly.  The 
greedy  avidity  with  which  Greeks  and  Romans 
seized  them,  and  the  demand  for  them  from  the 
West  which  came  later,  gave  these  natives 
of  pearl-producing  shores  a  new  idea  of  the 
value  of  their  pearls  and  the  trinkets  became 
gems. 

It  was  a  condition  similar  to  that  which  arose 
nineteen  hundred  years  later  when  the  Span- 
iards invaded  America.  At  their  first  coming 
the  natives  gave  them  freely  large  quantities 
of  pearls  and  gleefully  traded  magnificent  gems 

59 


THE  PEARL 

for  broken  pieces  of  gaudily  painted  and  var- 
nished porcelain.  As  one  to-day  might  take  a 
new  acquaintance  for  a  day's  fishing  to  a 
well-stocked  stream,  so  the  Indians  took  the 
Spaniards  to  the  pearl  banks  to  show  them  how 
they  obtained  their  pearls.  With  pleasure  and 
probably  some  amusement,  they  watched  the 
eagerness  with  which  the  strangers  sought  the 
pearls,  and  doubtless  wondered  at  the  gratifi- 
cation displayed  when  they  found  any. 

The  Egyptians  and  Asiatics  being  more  highly 
civilized  undoubtedly  valued  their  pearls  more 
than  the  South  American  Indians  did,  but 
naturally  they  would  not  appreciate  them  so 
highly  as  they  did  after  foreign  desire  had 
depleted  their  hoards  and  established  a  con- 
stant demand  for  them,  greater  than  the  yield 
of  their  fisheries. 

That  this  condition  prevailed  in  Egypt  and 
Asia  prior  to  the  advent  of  Europeans,  is  indi- 
cated by  the  apparent  ignorance  of  the  writer 
of  the  book  of  Job  concerning  pearls.  The 
word  used  in  Chapter  XXVIII.  18  is  simply  the 
translator's  sign  for  an  unknown  quantity,  and 
as  the  pearl  is  an  apt  symbol  and  illustration  of 

60 


ANTIQUITY  OF   THE  PEARL 

many  ideas  connected  with  or  embodied  in  the 
cult  of  the  Jewish  Church,  the  fact  that  the 
Jewish  writers  did  not  so  use  it,  though  the 
precious  metals  and  other  precious  stones  were 
so  used,  and  though  their  books  were  written 
in  various  countries,  suggests  that  the  pearl  in 
those  days  was  not  reckoned  of  equal  import- 
ance with  gold  and  silver  and  stones  like  those 
set  in  the  Jewish  High  Priest's  breastplate  for 
instance. 

That  a  very  considerable  change  in  the  world's 
estimate  of  the  pearl  took  place  during  the  four 
centuries  B.  C.  is  illustrated  by  the  references 
made  to  pearls  in  the  New  Testament.  Rome 
had  made  of  the  "white  bones  from  a  shell- 
fish" of  the  fourth  century  B.  C.,  a  gem  for  the 
rich  and  powerful  and  so  generally  established 
it  in  the  public  estimation  that  the  sacred  writ- 
ers used  it  to  illustrate  their  greatest  conceptions 
of  beauty  and  spiritual  worth. 

The  Saviour  likened  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven 
to  "a  pearl  of  great  price:"  under  the  simili- 
tude of  pearls  He  counseled  the  reservation  of 
holy  things  from  men  incapable  of  appreciating 
them.  Paul  and  John  numbered  them  among 

61 


THE   PEARL 

the  costly  adornments  in  the  pride  of  life  and 
with  the  most  precious  articles  of  merchandise. 
From  that  day,  with  the  extension  of  commerce, 
and  the  growth  of  Western  nations  in  affluence 
and  refinement,  the  demand  for  pearls  grew  and 
spread  until  even  the  rude  island  of  Britain 
learned  to  appreciate  them. 

The  quantities  of  large  and  beautiful  pearls 
stored  in  the  treasure-houses  of  Hindu  princes 
suggest  that  they  have  existed  as  jewels  in 
India  for  a  very  long  period,  but  for  how  many 
centuries  cannot  be  definitely  stated.  The 
probability  is  that  in  very  remote  ages,  rude 
fishermen  of  tropic  seas  all  over  the  world, 
while  fishing  for  food  were  attracted  by  the 
lustrous  objects  found  occasionally  in  the 
oysters  which  they  gathered  and  that  they 
saved  them  as  things  likely  to  please  some  maid 
or  matron  of  their  affections.  A  favor  for  them 
once  established,  they  would  be  sought,  and 
with  the  growth  of  intelligence  and  refinement 
would  come  increased  appreciation.  There  is  a 
close  analogy  in  all  things  between  the  develop- 
ment of  the  individual  and  nations,  and  even  of 
the  world.  Each  progresses  on  the  same  lines, 

62 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  PEARL 

the  difference  consists  in  the  magnitude  and 
duration  of  the  processes  only. 

To  the  child,  pearls  are  playthings ;  to  youth, 
pretty  baubles;  to  mature  years,  important 
gems;  to  age,  most  beautiful  and  wonderful 
creations,  and  the  more  intelligent  and  refined 
the  individual,  the  more  quickly  are  these 
stages  of  regard  reached. 

So  probably,  in  countries  where  they  were 
found,  pearls  have  risen  with  the  evolution  of  a 
great  nation  out  of  a  primitive  race,  from  the 
rude  favor  of  toilers  of  the  sea,  to  a  high  place 
in  the  esteem  of  the  princes  of  a  cultivated 
people.  It  is  quite  probable  that  when  the 
Aryans  from  the  north  spread  over  India,  they 
found  pearls  among  the  possessions  of  the 
natives  of  the  Madras  and  Malabar  coasts,  if 
not  of  the  interior  and  north,  as  Spain  found 
them  among  the  natives  of  South  America. 
Having  a  higher  order  of  intelligence,  they 
would  naturally  estimate  the  gem  as  of  greater 
value  than  the  aborigines  would. 

As  the  invaders  in  the  course  of  centuries 
gradually  divided  themselves  into  castes,  the 
gem  would  come  largely  into  the  hands  of  the 

63 


THE   PEARL 

highest  and  its  value  would  increase  with  the 
affluence  of  the  ruling  class,  according  to  the 
ratio  existing  between  their  wealth  and  that 
of  the  average  community;  for  the  centraliza- 
tion of  wealth  establishes  a  price  for  its  imper- 
ishable forms  which  debars  the  masses  from 
ownership.  So,  probably,  the  Aryans  from  the 
north  acquired  the  pearls  they  found  in  the 
possession  of  the  Dasyus.  When  the  shepherd 
invaders  were  settled  in  the  territory  they  had 
conquered  and  became  divided  into  castes  of 
Vaisyas,  Kshattriya  and  Brahman,  pearls  gravi- 
tated to  the  upper  classes,  to  be  garnered  later 
by  their  princes  as  the  government  assumed  a 
tyrannical  form;  and  so  it  is  that  the  great 
pearls  of  India  found  in  ancient  times  are  among 
the  jewels  of  the  princes  of  India,  or  of  the 
Shah  of  Persia  and  the  Afghan  Ameers,  who  in 
turn  looted  some  of  the  richest  treasuries  of 
India. 

In  countries  east  of  India  one  can  only 
imagine  the  history  of  pearls  for  there  are  no 
records  of  them.  Year  after  year,  for  centuries 
and  cycles,  in  undiscovered  deeps,  the  beds  of 
the  sea  were  strewn  with  noble  gems  that 

64 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  PEARL 

through  all  their  years  of  beauty  lay  neglected : 
the  soft  luster  of  succeeding  charms  appealed  in 
vain  for  eyes  which  never  came,  and  when  the 
slow  processes  of  time  had  brought  decay  they 
passed  unseen  to  the  catacombs  of  Nature. 

So  it  was  in  many  a  tropic  sea,  on  unknown 
shores  and  about  islands  holding  strange 
creatures  and  stranger  men.  In  the  still,  clear 
waters  of  far-away  lagoons,  treasures  of  pearls, 
released  by  the  death  of  their  creators,  have 
rolled  to  a  resting-place  on  coral  reefs,  to  lie 
there  until  the  sea,  atom  by  atom,  devoured 
them.  Could  all  the  pearls  hoarded  by  every 
nation  on  earth  be  gathered  together,  the 
mighty  sum  would  be  small  compared  with  the 
number  of  those  which  lie  buried  beneath  the 
ocean. 

But,  one  by  one,  slant-eyed  Celestials,  Maoris, 
Malays,  Papuans,  Polynesians  and  others,  dis- 
covering, learned  to  prize  and  hoard  the  pearl. 
Then  came  men  from  far-off  wonderlands,  whose 
great  ships  spread  their  sails  to  the  winds  of 
the  deep  waters  and  who  could  endure  for 
many  days  the  solitudes  of  the  great  seas. 
These  in  the  early  days  made  war  to  plunder, 
5  65 


THE   PEARL 

but  were  replaced  as  the  centuries  passed,  by 
others  who  gave  gaudy  beads  and  cloths  of 
many  colors  and  water  that  fired  the  soul  and 
other  wonderful  things,  in  exchange  for  the 
white  beads  of  the  sea,  and  so  the  pearls  of  the 
unenlightened  children  of  the  South  Seas 
passed  to  the  princes  of  the  West,  even  as  the 
same  restless  spirits,  spreading  their  sails  to  the 
winds  of  the  great  seas  in  the  opposite  direction, 
brought  them  east  from  more  barbarous  shores 
far  away  to  the  westward. 

Our  knowledge  of  pearls  reaches  back  about 
twenty-three  hundred  years,  through  the  writ- 
ings of  Pliny,  who  nearly  nineteen  hundred 
years  ago  gathered  the  facts  of  his  day  and  the 
vrumors  of  traditions  concerning  them.  Beyond 
that  we  can  only  surmise  that  in  prehistoric 
ages,  with  the  dawn  of  intelligence  in  the 
infantile  period  of  the  race,  men  dwelling  near 
tropic  seas  were  attracted  by  them  as  children 
are  by  bright  and  pretty  baubles ;  and  that  as 
humanity  by  families,  tribes  and  nations,  grew 
out  of  savagery  to  the  mental  stature  of  a  man, 
so  pearls  grew  to  be  jewels  very  precious. 


66 


THE  FASHION  OF   PEARLS 


THE  FASHION  OF  PEARLS 

Although  the  pearl  like  all  other  jewels,  has 
had  its  periods  of  extreme  and  general  public 
favor,  unlike  other  gems  if  it  is  once  appreciated 
by  an  individual  or  a  nation  it  is  never  utterly 
discarded  by  either.  (p~not  the  fashion,  pearls 
are  always  in  fashion.  Far  as  we  can  look  back 
among  the  dim,  uncertain  figures  of  the  mystic 
past  whose  shades  stand  where  the  unknown 
multitudes  have  fallen,  we  find  pearls. 

The  princes  of  India  through  all  their  genera-^ 
tions,  the  dynasties  of  Egypt,  the  royalties  of  ; 
Persia,    the   wild   chiefs   of   Arab    tribes,    the  1 
potentates  of  Greece,  Rome  and  Venice,  the   I 
houris  of  Turkey,  the  Queens  of  every  European   J 
court,   from  the  time  they  found  a  place  in  / 
history  until  now,   all  wear  pearls.  /  At  first 
thought  this  seems  strange,  for  of  all  gems  the 
origin  of  the  pearl  is  most  humble.    No  titanic 
forces,  groaning  in  the  travail  of  subterranean 
convulsions,  crushed  and  ground  and  fired  its 
particles  to  shape  and  beauty.    It  grew,  a  few 

69 


THE  PEARL 

fathoms  deep,  where  the  waters  are  at  peace, 
in  the  embrace  of  a  mollusk  and  out  of  its 
exudations. 

From  this  lowly  parentage  it  rises  at  once  to 
a  place  among  the  noblest,  for  it  is  the  aristo- 
crat of  gems  and  finds  its  warmest  admirers 
among  the  aristocrats  of  all  nations.  The 
favorites  of  fortune  the  world  over  in  all  ages 
have  succumbed  to  the  modest  beauty  of  the 
pearl.  Its  ascendancy  marks  not  alone  the 
refinement  of  the  individuals  with  whom  it  finds 
favor,  but  the  high  status  of  the  nation  where 
it  is  widely  appreciated.  The  pearl  is  the 
favorite  of  those  who  are  surfeited  with  jewels. 
One  may  become  tired  of  the  diamond's 
splendor,  but  those  who  learn  to  appreciate  the 
unobtrusive  loveliness  of  the  pearl,  seldom  lose 
that  fondness  for  them  which  it  develops.  It 
is  the  one  gem  which  does  not  satiate.  .The 
love  of  pearls  usually  marks  a  connoisseur  of 
gems  and  one  accustomed  to  the  possession  of 
jewels.  Diamonds  emblazon  the  gates  of 
luxury  but  pearls  are  the  familiars  of  the 
luxurious.  Glittering  gems  are  admired  by  all 
classes  but  usually  the  pearl  is  fully  appreciated 

70 


UN1V.   OF 

CALIFORNIA 


PRINCESS     ABAMALEK    LAZAREFF 
(From  the  fainting  by   Vitelleschi} 


THE   FASHION   OF   PEARLS 

only  by  old  countries  and  persons  "  to  the  manor 
born."  It  is  in  the  treasure-houses  of  the 
princes  of  the  Orient  and  among  the  jewels  of 
great  and  noble  families  that  one  must  look  for 
the  pearls  gathered  during  the  centuries.  Except 
in  Italy  and  Arabia,  where  all  classes  prize  them, 
the  pearl  is  not  a  jewel  of  the  people,  but  of 
the  gentry  and  the  very  rich  who  come  in  con- 
tact with  them. 

It  is  essentially  a  jewel  for  the  wealthy. 
Unostentatious,  exquisite,  it  is  insufficient  for 
those  who  have  no  other  jewels  and  unfit  for 
common  wear.  Of  a  nature  too  delicate  for 
rough  usage,  it  must  be  well  cared  for  and 
properly  housed.  Even  then  the  hand  of  time 
bears  heavily  upon  it  for  it  is  susceptible  to 
many  influences  which  do  not  affect  other  gems. 
Comparatively  soft,  the  lustrous  skin  is  injured 
by  rough  and  careless  contact  with  other  jewels. 
The  gold  of  the  setting,  in  time,  cuts  into  "the 
surface  where  it  binds,  or  if  it  is  pierced  and 
strung,  the  rings  of  nacre  about  the  orifices 
gradually  peel  away.  Hot  water  injures  it; 
gases  discolor  it.  As  the  cheek  of  beauty  grows 
dim  with  age,  so  gradually  the  brilliancy  of 

71 


THE  PEARL 

youth  fades  from  the  pearl  and  the  complexion 
:'  of  it  is  changed.  And  yet  it  retains  a  certain 
loveliness  which  may  well  be  compared  to  the 
exquisite  serenity  with  which  the  maturer 
years  of  some  women  are  adorned. 

The  pearl,  therefore,  being  essentially  a  jewel 
of  the  rich,  is  not  affected  as  others  by  the 
whims  of  fashion.  In  Oriental  countries,  where 
the  lives  of  the  masses  and  what  little  property 
they  hold  are  practically  at  the  mercy  of  their 
rulers,  the  centuries  make  little  change  in  con- 
ditions and  less  in  fashions.  The  nobles  have 
always  possessed  the  jewels  of  the  various 
eastern  countries  and  the  fashion  continues 
through  generations  and  dynasties,  to  accumu- 
late and  hold  them  until  some  stronger  power 
takes  them  away  by  force.  As  the  people 
hammered  heavy  bracelets  and  anklets  out  of 
the  precious  metals,  not  alone  for  display,  but 
also  to  hoard  them,  so  their  princes  hoarded 
jewels. 

In  the  old  times  these  hoards  of  the  precious 
metals  were  periodically  gathered  by  the 
requisitions  of  the  princes  on  the  people,  and 
of  jewels  by  the  demands  of  a  successful  invader 

72 


THE   FASHION   OF   PEARLS 

upon  the  princes;  but  while  the  possessors 
changed,  the  fashion  remained  always  the  same, 
and  whether  the  Shah  of  Persia,  the  Ameer  of 
Afghanistan,  or  the  Mogul,  there  has  been  no 
variation  in  the  constant  desire  to  obtain  more 
jewels,  pearls  among  them,  and  to  display  them 
after  the  same  fashion  through  all  the  genera- 
tions. 

To  some  extent  this  is  true  of  pearls  in  the 
Occident  also.  Since  Rome  set  the  fashion 
there  has  not  been  a  time  in  the  history  of  any 
European  nation,  once  it  had  risen  to  the  pearl- 
wearing  eminence,  when  the  upper  classes  did 
not  wear  pearls.  There  is  this  difference  between 
the  East  and  the  West  however;  whereas  the 
men  of  the  East  wear  them,  in  the  West,  pearls, 
are  worn  almost  entirely  by  women  along/  The 
more  rugged  life  of  European  men,  the  coarser 
fabrics  of  their  garments  to  suit  climatic  needs, 
and  their  virile  distaste  for  effeminate  display, 
all  combine  to  bar  them  from  a  jewel  suited 
only  to  soft  silks  and  linens  or  the  touch  of 
softer  flesh. 

In   ancient   times,    among  Asiatics,    fashion 
probably  did  not  culminate  in  any  direction, 

73 


THE   PEARL 

as  to-day,  in  a  vogue.  The  inability  of  the 
masses  to  follow  a  fashion  of  the  upper  classes, 
both  for  lack  of  means  and  permission  to  do 
so;  the  absence  of  all  rapid  methods  of  com- 
munication between  sections  of  country  within 
and  without  national  borders,  with  the  conse- 
quent limitations  of  a  knowledge  of  men  and 
things  to  community  affairs,  and  the  paucity  of 
manufacturing  possibilities,  all  combined  to 
make  fashions  permanent.  With  the  awaken- 
ing of  the  vigorous  barbarian  tribes  of  Europe 
to  a  knowledge  of  their  power,  and  their  rapid 
civilization,  came  the  frenzied  desire  of  men 
new  to  the  situation,  to  crowd  as  much  as  possi- 
ble into  the  span  of  life. 

Rome  rioted  in  the  accumulations  of  ages. 
With  an  appetite  whetted  by  an  heredity  of 
unsatisfied  desire,  she  drank  the  finest  vintages 
and  gourmandized  the  choicest  morsels  of  the 
world,  immune  from  present  punishment  for 
excess  by  a  long  ancestry  of  hard  and  simple 
life.  Every  land  that  she  could  reach,  sent  to 
her  the  best  of  all  their  products,  and  from  the 
incoming  tide  of  things  new  to  her  experience, 
she  adopted  many  fashions,  among  them  that 

74 


THE   FASHION   OF   PEARLS 

of  wearing  pearls.  For  several  centuries  they 
were  in  vogue,  so  much  so  that  edicts  were 
issued  restricting  them  to  certain  classes.  Since 
that  time,  the  very  general  use  of  them  by 
persons  of  high  station  in  Europe,  beyond  all 
other  gems,  seems  to  have  been  confined  to  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  and  is  now 
being  revived  at  the  opening  of  the  twentieth. 

There  is  one  fashion  of  wearing  pearls  which 
is  common  to  all  ages  and  races,  viz.  strung  as 
beads  in  chains  to  hang  about  the  neck.  The 
mound -builders  of  North  America,  the  Indians 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  of  Virginia,  of  the 
coasts  of  Florida,  of  the  lands  around  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  everywhere  in  New  Spain,  all 
wore  them  so.  Egyptians,  Persians,  Arabians, 
Hindus,  Singhalese  and  South  Sea  islanders, 
many  of  them  without  knowledge  of  countries 
or  peoples  beyond  their  own  or  very  near  ter- 
ritory, alike  adopted  this  fashion.  And  it  has 
been  followed  by  every  newer  people,  as  they 
acquired  by  trade  or  the  sword,  the  pearls  with 
which  to  so  adorn  themselves. 

In  lands  of  tropic  heat  the  women  wound 
these  strings  of  pearls  about  their  arms,  wrists 

75 


THE  PEARL 

and  ankles  also.  Nor  was  the  fashion  confined 
to  women.  When  the  Spaniards  first  reached 
these  shores,  the  caciques  of  Florida  and  the 
incas  of  Peru,  on  occasions  of  State,  wore  ropes 
of  pearls  around  their  necks,  and  so  to  this  day 
do  the  rajahs  and  princes  of  India  and  the 
eastern  islands.  The  more  civilized  peoples 
used  round  pearls,  and  became  more  critical 
about  the  quality  and  perfection  of  the  gems 
as  they  grew  in  wealth  and  refinement. 

The  necklaces  found  in  the  Indian  mounds 
are  made  principally  of  baroques,  some  of  them 
rounded,  but  many  of  them  long,  slender  pieces, 
bored  a  short  distance  from  the  thinner  end, 
so  that  they  hung  in  pendant  festoons.  As 
with  all  primitive  races,  the  magnificence  of 
size  appealed  to  the  Indians  of  this  hemisphere, 
as  it  did  also  to  the  Spanish  adventurers  who 
first  landed  on  the  coasts  of  America.  A  chroni-. 
cler  of  events  during  the  time  when  De  Soto 
was  governor  of  the  province  which  now  forms 
several  of  the  Southern  States,  mentions  that 
a  cacique  brought  as  a  present  to  the  governor 
at  the  town  of  Ichiaha,  a  string  of  pearls  as 
large  as  filberts,  five  feet  long. 

76 


THE   FASHION   OF   PEARLS 

It  is  noticeable,  that  in  all  the  accounts  given 
of  the  wealth  of  pearls  discovered  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  natives,  the  Spaniards  rarely  say 
anything  about  the  shape  or  quality  of  the 
pearls  seen  or  taken,  but  always  mention  the 
size  when  large.  They  do,  however,  constantly 
deplore  the  discoloration  caused  by  the  use  of 
fire  in  the  process  of  boring  them.  One  may 
imagine  the  chagrin  of  these  freebooters  on 
finding  heaps  of  royal  gems  wrecked  by  the 
ignorance  of  the  plundered;  the  value  burned 
out  of  them,  like  bank  notes  for  millions  muti- 
lated beyond  redemption.  The  pearls  compos- 
ing this  five-foot  string  were  all  discolored, — 
good  enough  for  Indians,  but  of  little  value  in 
Spain  and  Europe. 

Round  baroques  are  strung  for  necklaces  to  > 
this  day,  especially  in  ItaljF,  where  the  peasantry 
save  from  their  small  earnings  the  equivalent  of 
two    to    three    hundred    dollars,    to    them   an 
enormous  sum,  to  buy  the  coveted  necklace  of 
pearls.     These  necklaces  are  composed  usually  \ 
of  several  strands  of  small  rounded  baroques 
weighing  about  one  to  two  grains  each  and  con- 
nected by  bars.    Usually  there  are  three  to  five  t 

77 


THE  PEARL 

strands,  but  some  are  made  with  as  many  as 
•eleven  or  twelve.  Necklaces  are  made  also  in 
the  same  way,  of  small  round  pearls,  and  the 
bars,  of  which  there  are  generally  four,  includ- 
ing that  containing  the  clasp,  are  studded  with 
diamonds. 

y^The  Asiatics  prefer  strings  of  large  pearls, 

:  graduating  in  size  on  either  side  from  a  large 

^central  one.    A  number  of  these  of  increasing 

length  and  fastened  together  at  the  clasp  are 

worn  by  Oriental  royalties,  so  that  each  string 

festoons  below  the  preceding  one,  the  lowest 

and  longest  string  sometimes  hanging  to  the 

waist.    There  are  few  however  even  among  the 

Hindu  princes  whose  store  of  large  pearls  is 

equal  to  such  prodigality. 

When  pearl  necklaces  were  adopted  by  the 
Romans  after  their  conquests  in  Egypt,  Persia 
and  India,  they  vied  with  the  monarchs  they 
had  conquered,  some  of  their  rulers  acquiring 
pearls  of  enormous  value.  The  wife  of  Caligula 
owned  pearls  worth  two  million  dollars,  but 
Oriental  treasure-houses  held  greater  accumula- 
tions. The  pearls  of  the  late  Rana  of  Dholpur 
in  Upper  India,  were  valued  at  seven  and  a  half 

78 


THE  FASHION   OF  PEARLS 

million  dollars.  From  Rome  the  fashion  spread 
with  the  advance  of  civilization  through  all  the 
nations  of  Europe  and  followed  their  coloniza- 
tions westward.  Only  in  the  last  decade  has 
the  use  of  pearls  in  the  United  States  become 
sufficiently  general  to  place  them  in  the  list  of 
things  that  are  a  fashion. 

Many  large  pearls  of  pear,  egg,  or  drop  shape, 
and  some  round,  are  used  as  pendants,  to  be 
hung  on  slender  gold  neck  chains,  or  suspended 
from  brooches  of  diamonds.  They  are  bored 
at  the  smaller  end  to  a  depth  of  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch,  the  hole  is  filled  with  a  com- 
position which  hardens  rapidly,  and  in  this  a 
gold  wire,  looped  at  one  end  for  connecting,  is 
inserted.  Formerly  the  pearl  was  drilled  quite 
through  and  the  suspending  wire  riveted,  but 
this  is  rarely  done  now  as  it  lessens  the  value 
of  the  pearl  and  destroys  the  perfect  pendant 
effect.  This  is  a  European  fashion.  The 
Chinese  mount  pearls  by  boring  into  the  body 
of  the  pearl  at  two,  three  or  four  points  and 
inserting  the  bent  ends  of  spreading  wires  so 
that  the  gem  is  clasped  as  by  spreading  finger 
tips. 

79 


THE  PEARL 

Pear-shaped  pearls  were  used  in  Rome  for 
pendant  purposes  as  now  and  were  known  as 
"elenchi."  After  the  Roman  fashion  of  "cro- 
talia"  or  "  Castanet"  eardrops  had  passed,  drop 
pearls  continued  in  more  or  less  favor  through- 
out succeeding  centuries  as  eardrops,  the  match- 
ing of  one  nearly  doubling  the  value  of  both. 
Of  late,  egg  and  pear-shaped  pearls  have  been 
used  largely  as  heads  for  scarf  pins.  They  are 
drilled  and  set  on  a  gold  wire  or  "pegged"  as 
it  is  called,  in  the  manner  described  for  pendants 
but  with  the  smaller  end  resting  upon  a  light 
gold  ring  soldered  to  the  scarf  pin,  or  in  a  small 
cup,  so  that  the  pressure,  while  inserting  the 
pin,  is  distributed  over  the  body  of  the  pearl 
and  upon  the  end,  instead  of  upon  the  inner  wall 
in  contact  with  the  end  of  the  pin. 

The    Persians    used    pearls    largely    in    the 

j   jewelling  of  royal  headgear,  for  Pompey  is  said 

to  have  brought  home  twenty  crowns  of  pearls 

I  with  the  loot  from  his  eastern  raid.     Hindu 

princes  strung  them  on  straight  wires  of  equal 

length  and  bound  a  number  of  them  together, 

to  be  fastened  as  pompons  or  aigrettes,  to  their 

turbans.    They  encrusted  and  edged  their  robes 

80 


THE  FASHION   OF   PEARLS 

with  them  as  also  did  the  royalties  and  nobles 
of  Europe  during  the  middle  ages.  Seed  pearls', 
were  strung  in  lengths  of  four  to  six  feet  and 
the  strands  twisted  together  like  a  rope.  This 
fashion  continues  to  this  day,  such  ropes  of 
pearls  sometimes  measuring  five  feet  in  length.. 

The  semi-barbarous  Indian  tribes  of  America 
did  not  confine  the  use  of  pearls  altogether  to 
personal  adornment.  They  decorated  their 
idols,  state  canoes,  the  handles  of  the  paddles, 
and  the  figures  in  their  temples  with  them,  and 
they  buried  enormous  quantities  in  the  sepul- 
chres with  their  dead.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
this  latter  form  of  extravagance  was  at  any 
time  general  in  Asia  or  Europe,  but  Julius 
Caesar  made  a  buckler  of  British  pearls  which 
he  hung  up  in  the  temple  of  Venus  Genetrix 
after  dedicating  it  to  her. 

Among  the  ancients  it  does  not  appear  that 
pearls  were  used  in  connection  with  the  precious 
metals  to  a  great  extent.  Collars  of  gold  and 
silver  with  large  pearls  as  pendants  were  some- 
times seen  upon  the  necks  of  Indians  by  the 
Spaniards  when  they  landed  on  this  continent, 
but  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  upon  their  first  intro- 
6  81 


THE  PEARL 

duction  into  Europe,  pearls  were  not  used  with 
the  metals  as  freely  as  other  gems.  As  the  art 
of  the  jeweller  developed  however,  they  came 
into  more  general  use  and  are  now  utilized  with 
gold  in  every  form  of  jewelry.  Round  and 
button  pearls  with  diamonds  or  other  stones, 
or  alone,  are  set  in  gold  as  brooches,  ear-rings, 
finger-rings,  bracelets,  hair-ornaments,  scarf- 
pins,  dress-pins,  studs,  cuff  and  dress  buttons, 
etc.,  and  baroques  are  also  used  for  the  same 
purposes.  Brooches,  lockets  and  pendants  are 
paved  with  solid  masses  of  half  pearls. 

Some  ancient  swords  of  Hindu  warriors 
betray  a  curious  custom.  A  groove  with  over- 
lapping edges  was  sunk  in  the  blade  and  into 
this  pearls  were  introduced  from  the  hilt  end 
to  represent  the  tears  of  enemies.  There  are 
blades  so  constructed  in  the  collection  of  Indian 
swords  presented  to  King  Edward  of  England 
when,  as  the  Prince  of  Wales,  he  visited  India. 

Jewellers  frequently  avail  themselves  of  the 
odd  shapes  in  which  baroques  occur  to  construct 
unique  jewels.  Nature  frequently  gives  them 
a  resemblance  to  animals,  and  sometimes  to  the 
human  figure  and  face,  which  may  be  accentu- 

82 


THE   FASHION   OF  PEARLS 

ated  by  the  jeweller's  art  so  as  to  make  the 
resemblance  striking.  In  one  notable  instance 
lately,  a  baroque  was  so  mounted  that  it  might 
easily  pass  as  a  modelled  portrait  of  Queen 
Victoria.  Baroques  resembling  bird's  wings  are 
common  and  are  often  made  effective  by  mount- 
ing them  on  a  bird  of  gold.  Others  remind  one 
of  fish,  birds,  insects,  and  beasts  of  various 
kinds.  Clustered  pearls  enveloped  together 
sometimes  look  like  dog's  heads,  in  which  two 
of  the  enveloped  pearls  near  the  surface  pass 
for  eyes.  Long,  slender  baroques  are  set  to 
resemble  the  petals  of  a  chrysanthemum,  and 
others,  mounted  singly  in  sepals  of  gold,  are 
suggestive  of  the  buds  of  various  flowers,  roses, 
lilies,  etc. 

Round  and  button  pearls  are  used  exten- 
sively now,  and  have  been  at  various  periods 
formerly,  as  centres  for  circles,  or  '  'clusters"  of 
diamonds  mounted  as  scarf-pins,  finger-rings 
and  formerly,  when  they  were  worn,  as  ear-rings. 
The  pearls  are  sometimes  drilled  and  set  on  a 
peg;  sometimes  they  are  held  by  claws  or 
prongs  as  the  diamonds  surrounding  them  are. 

Pearls  are  very  generally  used  now  as  studs 
83 


THE   PEARL 

by  men  for  evening  dress,  usually  mounted  on 
pegs  so  as  to  avoid  the  display  of  any  gold. 

But  all  fashions  of  wearing  pearls  except  as 
necklaces,  are  ephemeral.  The  fashion  of  pearl 
necklaces  has  been  constant  for  thousands  of 
years,  though  it  is  only  brought  to  general 
public  notice  when  some  new  country  with  its 
great  and  rapid  accretions  of  wealth,  adopts  it. 
The  markets  of  the  world  are  then  affected,  the 
price  of  the  gem  rises,  and  this  in  turn  tempts 
ancient  and  impoverished  families  to  unlock 
their  jewel  cases  to  the  bidding  of  the  nouveau 
riche.  That  this  condition  has  existed  from  the 
beginning  of  this  century  is  shown  by  the  sales 
which  are  being  made  constantly  in  Europe  at 
the  great  public  auctions  of  jewels.  In  1901  the 
Comtesse  de  Castiglione  necklace  was  sold  for 
$84,000.  At  the  sale  of  the  Princess  Mathilde 
jewels  in  Paris,  a  three  strand  necklace  of  133 
pearls  weighing  3320  grains,  once  the  property 
of  Queen  Sophie  of  Holland,  brought  885,000 
francs,  which  with  the  taxes  to  the  purchaser 
made  the  cost  $188,000.  At  the  same  sale,  a 
seven  strand  collar  given  by  Napoleon  I.  to 
the  Queen  of  Westphalia,  weighing  4,200  grs., 

84 


THE  FASHION   OF  PEARLS 

brought  $89,000,  and  another  collar  once  owned 
by  the  same  Queen  containing  thirty-three 
black  pearls,  weighing  1040  grs.  was  sold  for 
$20,240.  Several  fine  strings  were  sold  in 
London  in  1903.  Among  them  a  three-row 
necklace  from  the  Aquila  Jewels  for  $22,400.  A 
string  of  198  finely  matched  gem  pearls,  round 
and  graduated,  was  sold  at  Christie's  for  6,500 
pounds.  A  triple  row  of  153  of  the  same  kind 
brought  6,500  pounds.  Many  important  sales 
have  been  made  in  the  States,  during  the  last 
ten  years  especially,  but  as  they  were  made 
privately,  and  as  buyers  here  are  averse  to  any 
publicity  they  are  not  chronicled.  It  is  a  fact 
well  known  to  jewellers,  that  Americans  in  their 
home  market  are  extremely  difficult.  They 
demand  a  degree  of  perfection,  not  only  in  the 
gems  themselves,  but  also  in  the  matching  of 
them,  rarely  exacted  in  other  countries.  There 
are  strings  of  pearls  in  this  country  which  if 
less  magnificent,  for  extreme  perfection  and 
beauty  are  seldom  equalled  by  the  more  notori- 
ous jewels  of  Europe,  and  princely  sums  have 
been  paid  for  single  pieces  of  great  size  and. 
purity.  Greater  quantities  of  the  coveted  treas- 

85 


THE  PEARL 

ures  of  the  earth  are  pouring  into  the  lap  of 
the  United  States  of  America  through  the  chan- 
nels of  peaceful  industry,  than  were  ever 
gathered  to  a  nation  in  the  olden  times  by  the 
marauders  of  the  sword,  and  the  jewel  cases  of 
our  princes  of  commerce  will  soon  eclipse  those 
held  by  the  scions  of  ancient  freebooters. 


86 


VARIETIES 


VARIETIES 

True  pearls  are  divided  primarily  into  two 
classes,  "oriental,"  and  "freshwater."  By  true 
pearls  those  creations  are  meant  which  consist 
of  concentric  layers  of  nacre  or  mother-of-pearl, 
as  distinguished  from  similar  formations  by 
mollusks  out  of  material  that  is  not  pearly. 

In  the  early  days  pearls  brought  from  the 
Orient  were  therefore  called  "Oriental"  pearls. 
For  the  same  reason  the  fine  mellow  luster 
which  characterized  and  made  them  superior 
to  others  came  to  be  known  as  the  '  *  orient ' '  of 
the  pearl.  These  pearls  were  taken  from  oysters 
found  on  the  coasts  of  Ceylon,  Arabia,  and  the 
Red  Sea.  Later,  when  the  same  kind  of  oysters 
containing  similar  pearls  were  found  in  other 
seas,  they  were  also  classified  with  them,  until 
the  term  ' '  oriental ' '  is  now  applied  usually  to  all 
true  pearls  taken  from  salt  water  mollusks,  to 
distinguish  them  from  those  found  in  the  fresh 
water  mussels  and  other  products  of  ocean  shell- 
fish which,  though  similar  in  construction  and 

89 


THE  PEARL 

composition,  are  not  nacreous.  Occasionally, 
however,  the  term  is  still  applied  specifically  to 
pearls  from  the  Indian  Seas,  though  their 
' '  orient ' '  or  luster  is  not  always  finer  than  that 
of  like  pearls  found  in  many  other  localities. 

Pearl  oysters  are  varieties  of  the  Avicula 
Margaritifera,  of  which  the  Meleagrina  Margari- 
tifera  is  the  most  prolific  of  mother-of-pearl  and 
pearls  combined,  and,  the  Indian  excepted, 
yields  the  finest  pearls.  All  pearl  oysters  do 
not  produce  sufficient  mother-of-pearl  to  make 
their  shells  valuable,  nor  do  they  all  contain 
pearls.  The  name  therefore  applies  to  all 
oysters  whose  secretions  are  productive,  in  some 
degree,  of  mother-of-pearl  and  therefore  under 
favorable  conditions  of  pearls  also. 

"Fresh-water"  or  "sweet-water"  pearls  are, 
as  the  name  signifies,  those  found  in  the  mol- 
lusks  of  inland  waters.  This  mollusk  is  a 
mussel.  The  name  "mussel"  in  Anglo-Saxon 
signifies  something  which  retires  on  being 
touched.  It  is  known  as  "  Unio  "  of  which  there 
are  many  pearl-bearing  varieties. 

In  both  the  sea  oyster  and  the  fresh-water 
mussel,  other  nacreous  formations  occur  of 

90 


VARIETIES 

irregular  shape  called  "baroque"  pearls.  The 
orientals  approach  more  nearly  to  the  globular 
and  hemispherical  form  of  true  pearls,  having 
frequently  the  lumpy  rotundity  of  a  snowball 
and  sometimes  sections  which  are  smooth  and 
round.  The  fresh- water  baroques  are  usually 
very  irregular,  often  fantastically  so.  Many 
resemble  the  incisor  teeth  of  man  or  distorted 
grains  of  corn.  Slender  pieces  similar  to  the 
wing  of  a  bird  and  therefore  called  "wing" 
pearls,  or  "hinge"  pearls  because  they  are 
found  near  the  hinge  of  the  shell,  are  common. 
Some  are  shaped  like  a  flat  spike  nail.  Unlike 
oriental  baroques,  the  surface  of  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  fresh-waters  is  grooved  or  indented 
and  some  show  a  beautiful  iridescence.  Large 
button  baroques  of  fine  luster  and  iridescent, 
especially  when  they  have  a  decided  tinge  of 
pink,  have  come  to  be  known  of  late  as  "rose" 
pearls.  Another  variety  of  pink  baroques  hav- 
ing a  fairly  regular  shape  with  a  lustrous  and 
finely  irregular  pimply  surface  are  known  as 
"strawberry"  pearls.  These  terms  are  applied 
indiscriminately  to  the  two  varieties  however. 
Another  nacreous  formation  found  in  the 
91 


THE  PEARL 

mother-of-pearl  oyster  shells  is  the  "blister." 
It  is  produced  by  the  raising  of  the  nacreous 
deposits  above  the  level  of  the  shell  to  cover 
some  intruder  of  considerable  size.  This  results 
in  a  growth  similar  in  shape  to  a  blister  on  the 
flesh,  hence  the  name.  It  is  cut  out  of  the  shell 
and  used  in  various  ways  as  a  set  for  jewelry, 
or  to  imitate  the  bodies  of  insects  or  small  ani- 
mals. Others  with  a  slightly  higher  dome  and 
rounded  oval  shape,  regular  in  form,  are  called 
"turtlebacks." 

Some  of  these  hollow  shells  of  pearl  have  been 
found  to  cover  small  fish,  lizards,  etc.  The 
writer  saw  one  which  appeared  to  be  a  large 
button-pearl.  On  lifting,  it  proved  to  be  a  shell 
of  several  thicknesses  of  nacre  covering  a  small 
shell-fish  about  a  half-inch  in  diameter.  The 
imprisoned  mollusk  was  shrunken  and  crumb- 
ling so  that  the  nacreous  covering  could  be 
lifted  from  over  it,  a  hollow  dome  of  pearl. 
Mud  blisters  are  common  in  some  waters  and 
depreciate  the  quality  of  the  shell  and  are  other- 
wise useless.  A  typical  mud  blister  appears  in 
the  shell  illustrated  herewith. 

The  Abalone  pearl  occurs  usually  as  a  baroque 
92 


PANAMA    PEARL-SHELL,    SHOWING     MUD-BLISTERS,     BORERS,     AND     PEARL 


VARIETIES 

or  blister  but  occasionally  it  is  found  solid  and 
spherical.  Although  it  is  not  classed  among 
true  pearls,  a  few  globular  pieces  found  are 
entitled  to  a  place  among  them  because  they 
are  sometimes  identical  in  construction  and  have 
a  similar  pearly  luster,  it  is  however  very  liable 
to  crack  and  break  and  can  seldom  be  pierced 
with  safety. 

The  shell-fish  from  which  it  takes  the  name  is 
the  Haliotis,  called  here  the  Abalone.  It  is 
known  under  many  names — earshell,  Venus 's 
ear,  etc.  In  the  English  Channel  Islands  it  is 
the  ormer,  and  on  the  adjacent  coast  of  France 
where  it  is  very  abundant  the  name  for  it  is 
similar — ' '  ormier. ' '  The  Aelonians  called  it  the 
"Ear  of  Venus."  The  shell  is  ear-shaped, 
flattened,  slightly  spiral  and  has  a  series  of 
round  holes  near  the  edge  curving  with  the  last 
whorl  toward  the  boss.  As  it  grows,  the  oldest 
of  these  are  successively  filled  up  and  the  last 
remaining  open,  serves  as  the  anal  channel. 
The  exterior  is  very  rough  and  unsightly,  but 
the  mother-of-pearl  interior  is  one  of  the  most 
exquisite  pieces  of  color  work  painted  by  the 
hand  of  nature  and  to  this  is  added  an  enliven- 

.93 


THE  PEARL 

ing  iridescence  most  fascinating.  Like  it,  the 
pearl  formations  are  deeply  tinted.  Brownish 
reds,  peacock  greens,  and  dark  grays  are  the 
prevailing  colors.  They  are  seldom  of  even 
color  or  luster,  many  of  them  having  but  one 
lustrous  point  where  a  pearly  glaze  seems  to 
have  been  incorporated  with  the  earthenware 
like  surface. 

Usually  the  pearls  when  round  and  lustrous 
are  not  constructed  as  compactly  as  those  of 
the  bivalves.  The  texture  of  the  skins  vary  in 
quality  and  the  frequent  presence  of  inter- 
mediary strata  of  black  conchiolin  which 
shrink,  makes  them  liable  to  crack  and  break. 
The  blisters  run  very  even  in  these  two  qualities 
of  color  and  luster  and  though  seldom  quite  as 
brilliant  as  the  nacre  of  the  shell,  are  very 
beautiful  and  often  curiously  formed.  These 
blister-baroques  are  like  two  blisters  joined -at 
the  edges,  and  are  liable  to  separate  there. 
The  interior  consists  chiefly  of  black  conchiolin, 
rough  and  somewhat  shiny. 

The  "Conch"  pearl,  found  in  the  Conch 
(Strombus  gigas)  of  the  West  Indies,  also  is  not 
a  true  pearl.  The  shell  is  used  largely  for 

94 


VARIETIES 

ornamental  purposes,  especially  for  the  cutting 
of  cameos,  and  also  in  porcelain  works.  It  is  a 
large  shell,  sometimes  weighing  four  or  five 
pounds.  Formerly  great  quantities  were  ex- 
ported to  England  from  the  Bahamas;  in 
one  year  as  many  as  three  hundred  thousand. 
Conch  pearls  are  devoid  of  nacreous  luster,  the 
surface  having  an  appearance  like  china.  They 
are  slightly  transparent  and  show  under  the 
surface  a  series  of  delicate  wavy  markings. 

The  silky  sheen  of  these  lines  causes  them  to 
appear  lighter  than  the  body  color  of  the  pearl, 
and  they  seem  to  branch  toward  the  surface, 
changing  kaleidoscopically  as  the  pearl  is  turned. 
Almost  without  exception  the  shape  is  ovoid, 
or  a  flattened  ovoid,  though  some  are  distorted. 
In  color  they  range  from  very  pale  to  deep  pink 
and  coral  red,  the  ends  being  usually  much 
lighter  than  the  body  and  often  white.  In  the 
deeper  tints  they  are  more  uniform  in  color, 
and  as  they  are  apt  to  be  less  lustrous  and  trans- 
parent as  the  shade  deepens  to  red  they  show 
less  plainly  the  distinguishing  wavy  lines,  and 
may  be  easily  mistaken  for  pieces  of  coral  cut 
to  the  shape  and  polished.  They  are  very 

95 


THE   PEARL 

delicate  and  therefore  easily  fractured  or 
cracked.  As  the  natives  usually  obtain  the 
pearls  by  cooking  the  fish,  for  which  they  have 
a  great  liking,  a  large  proportion  of  the  few 
which  come  into  the  market  are  cracked.  It 
is  claimed  also  that  the  color  fades  with  time. 
They  are  sometimes  called  "Nassau"  pearls. 

Pearls  similar  in  appearance  to  the  Conch, 
except  that  the  wavy  lines  are  absent  and  the 
skin  rarely  as  brilliant,  are  taken  with  true 
pearls  from  the  small  varieties  of  the  Avicula, 
especially  about  the  coast  of  Venezuela.  Some 
are  white  as  chalk,  many  are  tinted  in  various 
shades  of  gray,  yellow  and  brownish  reds.  They 
have  the  shining  appearance  of  china  in  different 
degrees,  but  no  nacreous  luster.  The  skins  of 
many  of  these  are  peculiarly  constructed,  they 
show  modified  characteristics  of  various  parts 
of  the  shell.  The  surface  wave  lines  are  present 
to  some  extent,  together  with  curious  malforma- 
tions of  prisms  and  conchiolin. 

The  hexagonal  faces  look  as  though  they  had 
been  doubled  up  upon  themselves  together  with 
a  layer  of  conchiolin,  the  latter  appearing  as 
thick  black  V  or  U  shaped  marks  in  the  faces 

96 


VARIETIES 

of  the  distorted  hexagons.  Heretofore  these 
have  been  considered  valueless,  but  it  is  possi- 
ble that  with  the  increasing  vogue  of  pearls 
and  the  growing  desire  for  oddities,  they  will 
be  utilized  in  the  cheaper  forms  of  jewelry. 

Creations  similar  in  construction  to  pearls 
are  found  occasionally  in  the  common  oyster 
and  clam.  Though  entirely  devoid  of  the  pearly 
texture  and  luster,  some  of  them  are  very 
perfect  in  shape  and  smoothness  of  skin. 
Whether  taken  from  the  oyster  or  clam  they 
are  usually  called  "clam  pearls."  The  color  of 
the  oyster  pearl  is  generally  a  light  drab.  The 
clam  pearls  are  mostly  purplish  red  or  blue, 
often  dark  enough  to  appear  black.  Those 
taken  from  the  oyster  are  generally  round; 
those  from  the  clam  are  more  frequently  ovoid. 
Occasionally  one  or  both  ends  of  the  oval  are 
lighter  in  color,  as  the  Conch  pearl  is,  changing 
there  to  a  dark  red  or  purple.  When  the  color 
is  very  dark  and  the  skin  uncommonly  good, 
they  have  been  sold  for  black  pearls  by  unscru- 
pulous dealers.  They  are  accounted  of  little 
value,  though  exceptionally  large  pieces  will 
sometimes  sell  for  as  much  as  one  hundred  to  a 
7  97 


THE   PEARL 

hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  Similar  to  these, 
pearly  formations  characterized  by  a  glazed,  or 
glassy,  or  shiny  surface,  are  found  in  many 
molluscan  varieties,  bivalves  and  univalves, 
but  none  of  these  are  true  pearls. 

Pearls  similar  to  the  pink  Conch  are  found  in 
the  shank  or  chank  of  Ceylon  (Turbinella 
scolymus).  This  is  the  sacred  shell  of  the 
Hindus  and  the  national  emblem  of  Travancore 
in  the  Madras  presidency,  India.  Vishnu  car- 
ries a  chank  called  "Devadatta"  in  his  hand. 
It  is  said  his  first  incarnation  was  for  the  purpose 
of  destroying  Shankhasura  (the  giant  chank 
shell),  and  thereby  regaining  the  Vedas,  which 
had  been  stolen  and  taken  to  ocean  deeps. 


COLOR 


COLOR 

The  ideal  color  for  a  pearl  is  white.  Although 
all  fine  white  pearls  show  by  comparison  a  tint 
of  some  color,  a  fine  white  must  be  free  from  an 
appearance  which  can  only  be  described  as 
"dark."  It  is  not  color  always  but  a  certain 
density  which  makes  the  gem  appear  dead  by 
comparison  with  the  soft,  warm,  life-like  white 
of  the  perfect  pearl.  The  layers  or  skins  of 
some  pearls  are  more  transparent  than  others 
and  this  imparts  a  liveliness  which  is  absent  in 
the  more  dense. 

Upon  looking  at  a  string  of  pearls  held 
between  the  eye  and  the  light,  some  will  appear 
much  lighter  than  others  and  show  a  translucent 
band  about  one-fifth  the  diameter  of  the  pearl, 
extending  from  the  edge  of  the  circumference 
inward.  Such  pearls  upon  examination  will 
be  found  much  -finer  in  color  and  texture  than 
those  which  have  the  appearance  beside  them 
of  dark  opaque  spots  when  held  against  the 
light. 

101 


THE   PEARL 

There  is  also  a  white  which  is  not  dark  and  is 
yet  dead.  To  some  extent  it  is  characteristic 
of  all  fresh-water  pearls.  It  is  a  chalky,  milky 
white  that  even  when  lustrous,  carries  a  re- 
minder of  chalk  in  the  texture  and  lacks  the 
essential  life  of  the  ideal  pearl.  Color  in  the 
highest  perfection  is  found  in  the  pearls  of  the 
Ceylon  and  Australian  waters,  the  former  being 
also  very  lustrous,  and  such  are  sometimes 
termed  by  the  trade  " Madras,"  after  the  city 
where  the  Indian  pearls  have  been  marketed  for 
ages.  It  must  not  be  inferred  however  that 
pearls  equally  good  are  not  found  in  other 
localities,  but  that  the  color  averages  better, 
and  the  number  of  gems  of  ideal  color  and  luster 
is  greater  from  the  Ceylon  fisheries  than  else- 
where. The  color  and  texture,  and  therefore 
luster,  of  fine  Indian  pearls  is  seldom  equalled, 
never  surpassed. 

To  those  who  are  without  experience,  and  see 
for  the  first  time  a  large  quantity  of  pearls 
apparently  alike  in  color,  it  would  seem  an  easy 
matter  to  match  any  required  number;  but  in 
attempting  to  gather  sufficient  for  a  single 
strand  necklace,  one  would  learn  that  a  parcel 

1 02 


COLOR 

or  series  of  pearls,  seemingly  all  white,  contains 
a  surprisingly  great  variety  of  shades  or  tones 
of  color ;  that  which  appears  at  first  sight  quite 
easy  becomes  in  the  attempt  extremely  diffi- 
cult. Probably  nothing  requires  a  sharper  eye, 
a  more  delicate  sense  of  color  and  greater 
patience,  than  the  assembling  of  a  finely  matched 
string  of  pearls.  Bearing  in  mind  that  size, 
shape,  color,  and  perfection,  must  all  corre- 
spond, it  is  not  surprising  that  few  strings  exist 
which  are  above  criticism. 

Those  who  buy  them  seldom  realize  what 
enormous  quantities  of  pearls,  and  skilful  and 
painstaking  effort  is  necessary,  to  match  per- 
fectly, thirty  or  more,  especially  of  large  size. 
Pearls  which,  separated  by  a  few  inches  seem 
alike,  when  brought  close  together  reveal  dif- 
ferences of  texture  and  tone  of  color  suf- 
ficiently pronounced  to  arrest  the  eye  and 
destroy  that  ideal  perfection  of  purity  which 
permits  no  spot  to  mar  the  symmetry  of  an 
assemblage  of  these  emblematic  gems.  It  was 
said  in  old  times  that  to  match  a  pearl  perfectly 
was  to  double  the  value  of  both;  one  may 
imagine  therefore  the  difficulty  which  confronts 

103 


THE  PEARL 

the  modern  jeweller  when  he  undertakes  in  this 
critical  age  to  match  thirty  or  forty. 

The  color  most  common  in  pearls  of  all  seas 
is  yellow,  but  it  is  not  so  with  fresh- water  ones. 
Other  colors  are  seldom  found  except  as  tints 
in  white  pearls,  but  distinctly  yellow  oriental 
pearls  are  abundant.  The  tones  of  color  in 
the  white  are,  yellow,  blue,  pink  and  green. 
They  are  so  slight  that  it  is  difficult  to  recognize 
them  except  by  comparison.  The  blue  and 
pink  are  considered  best,  the  champions  of  each 
being  about  equal.  The  green  come  next  in 
favor  and  the  yellow  last.  This  order  applies 
fully  however  to  the  Occident  only.  Some 
Oriental  peoples  do  not  draw  such  fine  distinc- 
tions, and  the  Chinese  prefer  the  creamy  yellow 
to  any  other. 

The  "blue"  pearls,  or  "Panama"  pearls  as 
they  are  sometimes  called  in  the  trade,  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  blue  white  pearls 
just  mentioned.  "Blue"  pearls  are  of  a  dingy, 
slaty  blue  tint.  They  have  a  dark  appearance 
and  the  luster  is  seldom  good.  As  many  of  this 
character  are  found  in  the  Panama  waters  such 
pearls  are  often  sold  as  "Panama"  pearls. 

104 


COLOR 

They  are  even  less  desirable  than  those  which 
are  decidedly  yellow,  though  persons  of  a  little 
knowledge  will  often  buy  them  in  preference  to 
others  which  are  better,  because  they  are  not 
yellow  and  are  cheap. 

" Fancies"  include  all  decided  colors,  or  those 
having  a  rare  and  beautiful  tint.  Yellow  pearls 
as  generally  found  are  not  classed  among  them 
because  the  color  is  not  fine,  but  dark,— 
"  brackish  "  one  might  term  it.  A  clean  butter- 
cup yellow,  or  an  orange  yellow,  would  be 
''fancy"  however.  On  the  other  hand  a  deep 
pink  is  seldom  fine  as  the  color  is  then  almost 
invariably  muddy,  whereas  the  clean  delicate 
light  pink  pearls  are  rare  and  highly  esteemed. 
A  clear  grass  green  is  never  seen  but  the  color 
occurs  in  very  beautiful  bronze  and  peacock 
shadings.  Various  shades  of  blue,  rose,  copper, 
and  red  with  bronze  effects,  and  black  are 
included  in  this  classification. 

Black  pearls  are  much  prized,  and  the  term 
covers  a  wide, range  of  dark  shades  of  gray, 
slate,  brown  and  red.  The  ideal  color  how- 
ever is  sufficiently  deep  to  be,  as  the  name 
indicates,  black,  though  it  has  not  the  metallic 

105 


THE   PEARL 

appearance  of  hematite,  nor  the  polished  shine 
of  the  black  clam  pearl.  Black  pearls  having 
a  bronze  effect  are  open  to  suspicion,  especially 
if  they  are  pierced,  as  many  of  them  are  arti- 
ficially colored  and  are  liable  to  fade.  Such 
pearls  have  a  somewhat  metallic  appearance, 
are  seldom  very  lustrous,  and  if  there  is  a 
rough  chalky  place  in  the  skin  it  will  be 
blacker  there  than  elsewhere. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  rules  by  which  to  judge 
color,  but  there  is  a  quality  which  can  only  be 
described  as  "  clean."  It  is  free  from  muddiness 
and  is  desirable  in  pearls  as  in  all  other  gems. 

The  proportion  of  fancy  colors  is  greater  in 
fresh-water  pearls  than  in  the  orientals.  In  the 
United  States  the  fisheries  which  have  yielded 
the  finest  "fancies"  are  those  of  Wisconsin, 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Of  sea  pearls,  most 
of  the  fine  black  ones  come  from  the  coasts  of 
Mexico.  Beautiful  colored  pearls  are  found  in 
fisheries  of  the  Oceanic  Islands,  for  instance  at 
the  Isles  of  New  Caledonia  and  Gambier,  and 
,in  China  and  Japan. 

To  make  close  comparisons  of  color  in  pearls, 
place  them  on  white  cotton  under  or  opposite 

106 


COLOR 

a  strong  natural  light.  To  judge  shape  and 
luster,  roll  them  on  black  cloth.  These  are 
the  most  trying  conditions  and  it  should  be 
remembered  by  those  who  test  them  thus,  that 
no  position  as  jewels  when  worn  can  be  so 
unfavorable  or  trying. 


107 


IMPERFECTIONS 


IMPERFECTIONS 

Few  pearls  are  perfect.  The  great  majority 
of  small  pearls  even,  fail  in  one  or  more  of  the 
ideal  qualities,  and  as  the  size  increases  per- 
fection becomes  more  rare.  A  perfect  pearl  is 
not  necessarily  of  the  finest  luster,  but  it  must 
be  lustrous  and  of  even  luster  all  over.  If 
round,  it  must  be  spherically  round ;  if  pear  or 
ovoid,  symmetrically  so,  and  the  skin  must  be 
free  from  blemishes. 

Baroque  and  button  pearls  are  naturally 
imperfect  pearls,  the  former  being  fantastically 
irregular  in  shape  and  the  latter  partially 
deformed.  Imperfections  of  shape  in  what  are 
termed  round  pearls  are  more  numerous  than 
those  unaccustomed  to  handling  them  would 
suppose. 

A  lot  of  pearls  which  to  the  casual  glance 
seem  to  be  all  quite  round,  will  be  found  often 
on  close  examination  to  contain  many,  if  not  a 
majority,  that  are  not.  Upon  rolling  them 
separately,  irregularities  will  appear  which  the 

in 


THE   PEARL 

luster  and  contiguity  of  others  concealed.  It 
will  be  discovered  that  the  domes  of  some  are 
slightly  flattened  at  one  part  of  the  sphere;  in 
others  at  two  opposite  points  so  as  to  form  a 
double  domed  disk.  Very  many  have  slight 
protuberances  above  the  contour  of  the  sphere, 
or  places  in  the  spherical  line,  which  though 
not  flat,  are  depressed.  While  these  minor 
imperfections  of  shape  do  not  materially  hurt 
the  beauty  of  the  pearl,  they  do  decrease  the 
value  somewhat,  and  as  they  are  quite  common 
even  among  fine  selected  pearls  they  accentuate 
the  rarity  of  the  perfectly  spherical. 

The  adventures  of  a  pearl  from  the  moment 
when  the  mollusk  begins  to  cover  its  nucleus 
with  nacre,  until  the  fisher  squeezes  it  from  the 
.fol<Is  of  the  creature's  mantle,  are  many  and 
varied.  A  few-ionly  escape  untoward  happen- 
ings. The  fortunate,  born  where  the  -  mollusk 
gathers  and  spreads  its  choice  secretions  of 
mother-of-pearl,  with  room  to  grow  on  every 
side,  are  nursed  in  the  lap  of  good  fortune  and 
uncheckered,  round  out  layer  by  layer  to  per- 
fection. 

But  some  are  not  so  fortunate.    In  some  way 

112 


IMPERFECTIONS 

cramped,  they  are  held  against  the  unyielding 
shell  and  grow  flat  on  one  side.  These  are  the 
button  pearls.  Others  either  from  an  irregular 
rolling,  or  unequal  action  of  the  mollusk's 
mantle,  become  imperfectly  round.  Sometimes 
foreign  particles  attach  themselves  to  a  grow- 
ing pearl  and  becoming  enveloped  with  it  in 
future  layers,  make  an  uneven  surface. 

Not  infrequently  two  round  pearls  grow  side 
by  side  until  they  touch,  and  together  are 
enveloped  by  succeeding  deposits;  a  twinned 
pearl  is  the  result.  For  some  reason,  drop  and 
pear  shape  pearls  are  seldom  imperfect  in  shape. 
They  may  not  be  ideal  but  the  form  is  usually 
good  and  the  contour  even  and  regular.  This 
would  imply  that  the  simple  rolling  motion  by 
the  fish  is  more  regular  than  the  more  compli- 
cated movements  necessary  to  form  a  sphere. 

Imperfections  in  the  texture  and  luster  of 
the  skin  are  said  to  be  due  to  the  movement  of 
the  growing  pearl  among  the  zones  of  the 
mollusk's  mantle  supplying  the  varied  material 
for  the  epidermis,  middle  shell,  and  lining.  The 
difficulties  confronting  this  theory  are  explained 
in  the  chapter  on  the  "Genesis  of  Pearls/* 
8  113 


THE  PEARL 

These  imperfections  consist  generally  of  dead 
white  chalky  spots  and  streaks,  distributed  over 
the  surface  of  the  pearl,  oftentimes  so  small  as 
to  escape  notice  except  under  the  loup.  Some- 
times these  imperfections  take  the  form  of  rings 
or  bands  which  encircle  the  pearl.  Pearls  so 
marked  are  rarely  if  ever  round,  but  ovoid, 
capsule,  or  cartridge  shaped,  and  these  chalky 
lines  always  encircle  the  cylinder;  they  never 
cross  the  dome.  Rings  around  the  dome  occur, 
but  the  surface  over  them  is  of  equal  luster. 
Frequently  the  entire  outer  skin  is  without 
luster.  Whether  this  arises  from  lack  of  some 
element  in  the  exudations  of  the  mollusk  from 
which  the  pearl  is  created,  or  from  an  imperfect 
crystallization  of  the  calcium  carbonate,  is  not 
known.  Such  skins  have  the  usual  nacreous 
surface  wave  lines  and  are  often  lustrous 
immediately  under  the  outer  plates  of  the  skin. 
It  is  possible  that  these  chalky  skins  may 
result  from  the  extraction  of  the  pearl  from  the 
mollusk  during  a  transitional  stage,  and  that  the 
presence  of  spots  and  streaks  of  that  character, 
scattered  over  an  otherwise  lustrous  surface, 
indicates  that  the  secretions  of  the  creature's 

114 


IMPERFECTIONS 

mantle  did  not  hold  some  essential  ingredi- 
ent in  sufficient  quantity  to  secure  perfect 
crystallization  and  thereby  cover  the  entire 
surface  with  transparent  plates  of  calcium  car- 
bonate. It  may  be  also  that  a  lack  of  essential 
elements  in  the  creature's  exudations,  causes  a 
cessation  of  the  mantle's  action  which  by  all 
signs  appears  necessary  for  the  production  of 
transparent  plates  of  nacre. 

11  Peelers"  are  pearls  of  imperfect  skins  hav- 
ing indications  of  a  better  one  underneath. 
Speculators  buy  these  pearls  at  a  low  price  and 
skin  them.  Sometimes  they  are  rewarded  by 
a  smaller,  but  much  more  valuable  pearl. 
Many  times  the  under  skins  are  no  better  or 
worse,  or  if  better,  the  loss  in  size  and  weight, 
together  with  the  cost  of  the  work,  make  it 
unprofitable. 

Peeling  should  not  be  attempted  with  cylin- 
drical shaped  pearls  having  chalky  bands  or 
rings  around  them,  as  such  imperfections  usu- 
ally penetrate  to  the  interior  in  pearls  of  that 
character.  Cylindrical  pearls  are  almost  invari- 
ably fresh- waters.  The  imperfections  disclosed 
in  the  under  skins  by  peeling,  are  commonly 


THE  PEARL 

irregularities  of  shape  which  have  been  rounded 
over  to  the  improvement  of  the  sphericity  of 
the  pearl. 

It  is  currently  reported  among  the  pearl 
hunters  who  fish  the  western  and  southern 
streams,  that  the  finding  of  soft  pearls  is  not 
infrequent.  Upon  opening  the  mussel,  they 
sometimes  see  through  the  mantle  of  the 
creature,  an  apparently  fine  pearl  which  upon 
being  taken  out  proves  to  be  a  soft  jelly-like 
substance,  the  form  of  which  is  usually  destroyed 
in  squeezing  it  out.  These  men  do  not  believe 
that  a  pearl  is  formed  in  layers,  but  think  that 
all  pearls  are  originally  globules  of  a  similar 
soft  substance,  hardening  later  to  a  compact 
solid  ball  and  they  call  them  "  mussel  eggs." 

Many  pearls  taken  from  the  small  thin- 
shelled  varieties  of  the  ocean  mollusk,  as  for 
instance  those  of  Venezuela,  are  devoid  in  part, 
or  wholly,  of  the  nacreous  luster  and  instead 
have  a  china  like  or  waxy  luster,  or  a  dead 
chalky  skin.  A  large  proportion  of  the  Abalone 
pearls  and  baroques  are  lustrous  only  in  part, 
one  section  having  an  earthenware  appearance. 
Many  appear  to  be  formed  of  interstratified 

116 


IMPERFECTIONS 

layers  of  nacre  and  conchiolin.  This  construc- 
tion is  very  distinct  in  a  formation  peculiar  to 
the  Abalone,  consisting  of  two  nacreous  shells 
joined  perfectly  at  the  edges,  the  inside  walls 
of  both  being  covered  with  rough  black  con- 
chiolin. 

Peculiarities  in  the  quality  of  the  nacre 
sometimes  give  an  appearance  of  uneven  shape 
which  does  not  exist  in  reality.  The  light  fall- 
ing upon  such  pearls  produces  a  knobby  effect, 
as  though  there  were  protuberances  on  the  sur- 
face. The  texture  of  others  is  such  that  when 
looked  at  squarely  from  the  front  they  appear 
pyramidal  in  form,  the  rounded  apex  pointing 
toward  the  observer.  Such  pearls  have  a  soft, 
waxy  appearance  generally. 

Another  common  imperfection  consists  of  pits 
in  the  surface.  These  may  result  from  various 
causes:  in  many  cases  from  the  dislodgement 
and  rolling  of  a  pearl  which  has  been  flattened 
during  earlier  stages  by  pressure  in  one  position 
against  the-  shell.  Freed  from  this  hindrance 
to  spherical  growth,  the  later  concentric  layers 
would  round  over  the  edge  of  the  flat  spot  and 
thereby  leave  a  pit,  or  cavity,  in  the  centre. 

117 


THE  PEARL 

In  other  cases  pressure  against  the  pearl, 
or  the  partial  inclusion  of  foreign  substances, 
especially  of  an  organic  nature  which  decay 
before  being  entirely  covered,  are  possible 
causes.  The  reverse  of  this  also  occurs ;  grains 
of  sand  or  other  minute  particles  adhering  to 
the  surface  are  covered  by  succeeding  layers, 
thereby  producing  knobs,  more  or  less  observa- 
ble according  to  the  lapse  of  time  between  their 
inclusion  and  the  taking  of  the  pearl  from  the 
oyster. 

If  undisturbed,  the  fish  will  by  the  deposit 
of  sufficient  layers  of  nacre,  fill  the  intervals 
and  round  the  surface  again.  That  this  is 
done  in  time  is  shown  by  the  occurrence  of 
pearls  having  an  even  dome  over  a  nucleus 
formed  by  a  cluster  of  small  round  and  irregular 
pearls  enveloped  together.  In  the  process  of 
skinning,  or  the  removal  of  one  or  more  of  the 
layers  of  nacre,  it  is  sometimes  found  that  a 
depression  has  been  filled  by  a  thickening  of 
the  deposits  in  the  hollow ;  at  other  times  extra 
layers  fill  the  space,  and  these  flaking  out  with 
the  outer  skin  reveal  the  hidden  irregularity 
which  lay  beneath  the  round  surface,  thus 

118 


IMPERFECTIONS 

necessitating  the  removal  of  several  entire 
skins  before  a  sphere  is  reached  again.  The 
under  skins  of  some  pearls  appear  to  have  failed 
to  completely  envelop  the  nucleus.  The  cavity 
resulting  is  then  filled  to  an  even  surface  and  is 
succeeded  by  fully  developed  skins.  It  is, 
therefore,  not  certain  that  a  pearl,  perfect  in 
form  and  skin  when  found,  has  been  so  at  all 
stages  of  its  growth.  Broken  pearls  sometimes 
show  not  only  differences  of  color  but  of  thick- 
ness in  the  successive  layers.  The  skins  of 
fresh-water  pearls  especially  are  often  very 
irregular  in  thickness. 

Many  pearls  have  cracks  in  them.  These 
generally  escape  the  observation  of  inexpert 
persons,  as  they  are  usually  under  the  outer 
layer.  The  fact  that  they  rarely  extend  to  the 
surface  suggests  that  the  solidification,  or  dry- 
ing out  of  the  confined  interior  layers,  may  be 
the  cause.  These  are  considered  detrimental 
and  dangerous  by  dealers,  so  that  pearls  with 
cracks  in  them  will  not  bring  as  high  a  price  as 
they  would  if  free  from  them. 

As  cracked  pearls  are  liable  to  break,  espe- 
cially when  pierced  for  stringing,  it  is  well  to 

119 


THE  PEARL 

avoid  them,  though  the  percentage  of  those 
which  do  break  is  small.  In  reality  these  cracks 
are  more  of  an  imperfection  than  a  danger. 
Occasionally  they  are  quite  noticeable  and  are 
then  a  bad  imperfection,  but  frequently  a  sharp 
eye  or  the  loup  only  will  detect  them.  Surface 
cracks  however  are  quite  perceptible.  They 
are  dangerous  and  are  considered  a  serious 
imperfection. 

There  is  a  peculiarity  of  rare  occurrence 
which,  as  it  is  a  departure  from  the  ideal,  may 
be  termed  an  imperfection,  though  some  regard 
it  of  value  as  unique.  It  is  a  similarity  under 
the  surface  of  some  pearls  to  a  metal  which 
has  been  hammered  into  small  flat  spots  identi- 
cal in  appearance  with  the  jewelry  in  vogue 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  igth  century  made 
of  "hammered  gold."  It  is  scarcely  noticeable 
except  under  a  loup,  when  the  fine  lines  dividing 
the  confused  planes  appear.  These  pearls  are 
usually  slightly  pink  or  pinkish  yellow.  Some- 
times these  planes  resemble  the  facets  on  a 
cut  diamond,  generally  lozenge  shape,  and 
often  grouped  similar  to  those  on  the  under 
side  of  a  diamond. 

120 


IMPERFECTIONS 

Small  holes  and  blisters  on  the  surface  are 
quite  common,  but  ordinarily  they  are  scarcely 
perceptible  to  the  naked  eye. 

Many  faults  can  be  concealed  by  the  jeweller 
when  the  pearl  is  mounted.  Slightly  buttoned 
pearls  are  set  on  a  peg  in  the  centre  of  a  small 
shallow  cup ;  they  then  appear  quite  round.  A 
spot,  blister,  or  cavity,  in  a  round  pearl  can 
be  obliterated  by  pegging,  or  hidden  in  the 
setting.  Great  irregularities  in  the  sphericity 
are  lost  to  the  eye  when  the  gem  is  set  in  the 
prongs  of  a  ring  or  other  piece  of  jewelry. 
Pearls  shaped  like  a  double  convex  lens  may  be 
made  to  look  round,  or  very  nearly  so,  by  pierc- 
ing them  so  that  the  flattened  domes  are  brought 
in  contact  on  the  cord  holding  them  together 
as  a  necklace. 

Piercing  and  stringing  obliterates  or  hides 
many  flaws.  By  careful  selection,  the  jeweller 
can  utilize  pearls  having  a  blemish  by  drilling 
through  the  spot  where  the  flaw  is,  and  if  there 
is  another  an  the  opposite  side  that  also  will 
disappear.  Other  imperfections  near  the  hole 
are  often  hidden  in  necklaces,  as  they  cannot 
be  seen  when  the  pearls  are  held  close  together 

121 


THE   PEARL 

on  the  string.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  a  string 
of  pearls  can  often  be  bought  for  less  than  a 
like  number  of  loose  pearls  apparently  no  better 
but  which  in  reality  are  much  more  perfect 
in  shape  and  free  from  flaws.  Imperfections 
unseen  in  the  strung  pearls  would  be  quite 
noticeable  in  the  loose  and  undrilled. 

The  irregularities  of  baroques  cannot  prop- 
erly be  called  imperfections;  nevertheless  a 
baroque  is  more  valuable  as  it  is  free  from 
indentations  and  approaches  the  round  in 
appearance,  or  has  sides  which  will  give  it  a 
round  face  when  mounted.  The  curious  forms 
into  which  nature  moulds  many  of  them  are 
very  attractive,  and  as  they  lend  themselves 
to  the  imaginative  skill  of  the  jeweller,  are 
valuable.  The  faults  common  to  them  are 
rough  places  uncovered  by  nacre  and  colored 
streaks  or  spots,  usually  yellow  tending  .to 
brown.  These  discolorations  are  confined  gen- 
erally to  the  point  where  the  baroque  was 
attached  to  the  shell,  but  not  infrequently  they 
extend  far  enough  to  leave  no  front  which 
would  be  quite  clean  to  the  eye,  when  mounted. 

Oriental  baroques  as  a  rule  are  more  lustrous, 

122 


IMPERFECTIONS 

more  even  in  shape  and  seldom  discolored. 
Many  of  them  are  sufficiently  regular  to  string 
for  necklaces,  and  some  can  be  used  in  jewelry 
so  that  on  the  face  they  appear  like  round, 
drop,  or  pear-shaped  pearls. 


123 


GENESIS   OF   PEARLS 


TUAMOTU    PEARL-SHELL 


THE  PEARL 

one  distinctive  feature  which  places  them  in 
the  class  under  consideration  is  the  possession 
of  a  nacreous  lining  to  the  shell,  for  no  shell 
fish  can  produce  a  true  pearl  without  it.  The 
fresh  water  pearl-bearing  mollusk  is  a  mussel, 
unio  margaritifera,  also  found  in  many  varieties, 
but  all  characterized  alike  by  the  nacreous 
lining  of  the  shell. 

These  creatures,  living  upon  the  earth  where 
water  always  covers  it,  create  in  the  building 
of  their  habitations  a  material  of  great  beauty, 
and  sometimes  produce  gems  which  princes 
covet.  Of  the  most  delicate  nature,  they  build 
for  themselves  out  of  the  water  by  which  they 
are  surrounded,  houses  strong  and  enduring, 
fitted  for  their  protection  from  the  rough 
chances  of  life,  yet  so  furnished  within  that  they 
suffer  no  inconvenience  from  the  rugged  strength 
which  encloses  them.  Few  things  are  coarser 
than  the  exterior  of  these  domiciles,  but  nothing 
in  nature  is  finer  or  more  exquisitely  beautiful 
than  the  substance  with  which  they  are  lined. 

The  avicula  margaritifera  is  a  habitant  of  the 
coral  reefs  and  shoals  about  the  islands  and 
shores  of  the  tropics;  there  are  none  living 

128 


AUSTRALIAN     PEARL-SHELL 


GENESIS  OF   PEARLS 

now  in  northern  latitudes,  though  fossils  of 
many  species  are  found  north  of  the  present 
boundary  of  their  habitations.  An  idea  can  be 
formed  of  the  general  shape  and  appearance  of 
pearl-oyster  shells  by  the  neighboring  illus- 
trations of  three  varieties.  These  show  the 
two  extremes  of  the  marine  mollusk,  the 
meleagrina  of  the  South  Sea  and  Australia,  and 
the  squamulosa  of  Venezuela. 

In  some  of  the  small  species,  that  of  the 
Venezuelan  Coast  for  instance,  the  outer  shell 
is  yellowish,  with  fan-like  markings  of  dark 
reddish  brown  radiating  from  the  boss  or  beak 
and  growing  darker  as  they  near  the  lip.  This 
shell  is  thin  and  frail.  The  nacreous  lining  is 
also  thin  but  brilliantly  iridescent  and  shows  a 
series  of  fine  lines  and  irregular  fissure-like 
markings  extending  outward  from  the  hinge 
and  crossed  by  bands  of  color  which  curve  with 
the  outline  of  the  lip  edge  of  the  shell. 

These  colors,  as  brilliant  but  more  evasive 
than  the  hues  of  the  rainbow,  are  not  due  to 
the  presence  of  a  pigment;  they  arise  from  a 
phenomenon  of  light  and  form  one  of  the  most 
wonderful  illustrations  of  the  ease  with  which 
9  129 


THE  PEARL 

our  senses  play  tricks  upon  judgment  and 
understanding.  It  is  the  striated  surface  and 
the  very  thin  transparent  plates  of  nacre,  which 
cause  a  double  interference  and  produce  the 
beautiful  iridescence  peculiar  to  the  lining  of 
these  shells. 

"Interference,"  as  it  is  called,  is  an  optical 
phenomenon  arising  from  two  causes.  When 
light  falls  upon  a  sufficiently  thin  transparent 
surface  covering  a  denser  substratum  not 
exactly  parallel  with  it,  part  of  the  light  is  at 
once  reflected.  Of  that  which  passes  through 
to  the  under  surface  a  part  also  is  in  turn  re- 
flected through  the  first  surface,  and  the  con- 
fusion of  rays  or  "interference"  resulting,  pro- 
duces to  the  eye  the  sensation  of  color. 

A  familiar  illustration  is  seen  when  a  thin 
film  of  oil  is  spread  over  water.  The  other  way 
in  which  iridescence  by  interference  is  pro- 
duced in  shells,  may  be  demonstrated  by  draw- 
ing fine  lines  close  together  on  glass  with  a 
diamond.  Light  falling  upon  them  will  make 
the  surface  iridescent.  Melted  wax  dropped 
upon  this  striated  surface  would,  upon  removal, 
show  a  like  iridescence,  reproduced  with  the 

130 


VENEZUELAN     PEARL-SHELL,     WITH     PEARL    ATTACHED 


GENESIS  OF   PEARLS 

impression  of  the  fine  lines.  The  outer  markings 
of  the  large  Australian  shell  are  similar  to  the 
small  Venezuelan.  The  mother-of-pearl  interior 
is  not  so  iridescent. 

Pearls  and  the  shells  in  which  they  grow  are 
composed  almost  entirely  of  calcium  carbonate 
or  lime.  A  small  percentage  of  organic  matter 
and  water  are  the  other  ingredients. 

As  pearls  are  accidental  and  the  result  of  a 
misdirection  of  normal  processes,  a  general 
knowledge  of  those  processes  is  necessary  to  an 
insight  into  the  nature  and  genesis  of  the  pearl, 
and  as  pearl  shells  and  the  pearls  in  them  are 
constructed  on  the  same  general  plan,  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  former  will  assist  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  gem  and  its  eccentricities.  The 
mother-of-pearl  shell  is  built  up  of  a  series  of 
calcium  carbonate  plates  or  prisms  set  in  organic 
matter.  In  the  material  of  the  inner  shell,  the 
calcium  carbonate  greatly  preponderates;  on 
the  outside  of  the  shell,  the  organic  matter  is 
largely  in  excess.  In  the  building  of  its  shell, 
the  animal  deposits  the  finest  material  and  does 
the  best  and  most  compact  work  where  the 
house  is  in  touch  with  itself,  the  walls  becoming 

131 


THE   PEARL 

coarser  in  construction  and  quality  as  they 
approach  the  outer  surface. 

In  the  inside  of  the  shell,  the  calcium  car- 
bonate plates  are  very  fine  and  transparent, 
and  the  animal  membrane  in  which  they  are  set 
is  of  extreme  tenuity.  In  the  middle  shell  these 
plates  become  more  chalky  and  less  compact ;  in 
the  exterior  shell  they  are  set  in  a  thicker  binding 
of  organic  matter  and  terminate  outside  in  rough, 
horny  fringes,  completely  covering  the  shell. 

In  a  general  way  therefore,  the  animal 
deposits  the  best  of  its  secretions  about  itself 
and  pushes  out  to  the  outer  extremities,  the 
coarser  elements  which  are  fitted  to  preserve 
the  finer  parts  of  the  shell,  as  the  finer  parts  of 
the  shell  are  fitted  to  protect  the  delicate  organ- 
ism which  they  enclose.  The  building  of  the 
shell  is  done  by  a  membraneous  covering  of  the 
fish  which  entirely  envelops  the  body  and  is 
attached  to  the  shell  a  short  distance  from  the 
inner  edge,  leaving  a  rim  of  membrane  free 
around  the  fish  and  the  edges  of  the  two  valves. 
This  membrane  is  called  the  mantle.  It 
extracts  lime  from  the  water,  and  at  different 
parts  exudes  modified  solutions  of  it  mixed  with 

132 


GENESIS   OF   PEARLS 

animal  tissue,  suitable  for  the  construction  of 
the  various  parts  of  the  shell. 

The  exterior  of  the  shell  or  epidermis  consists 
of  conchiolin,  an  organic  compound.  It  is  a 
horny-looking  substance,  and  in  the  large  salt- 
water shells  and  in  most  of  the  fresh-water 
mussels,  the  nigger-head  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  especially,  it  appears  to  the  eye  as  a 
series  of  extensions,  sometimes  terminating  in 
ridges,  which  curve  about  the  umbo  and  spread 
to  the  edge  of  the  shell,  each  extension  coming 
from  under  the  one  preceding.  In  some  vari- 
eties it  is  attached  as  an  excrescence  to  the 
prismatic  formation  immediately  under  it,  and 
may  be  easily  detached  in  thin  flakes :  a  rusty 
black  in  some,  brownish-yellow  in  all  on  the 
inner  surface  and  in  some  on  the  outside.  The 
substance  is  generally  opaque,  but  contains 
spots  of  which  some  are  translucent,  resembling 
horn  or  amber,  while  others  are  more  transpa- 
rent, similar  in  formation  to  the  inner  parts 
of  the  shell. 

In  most  of  the  marine  and  fresh-water  vari- 
eties, unlike  the  nigger-head,  the  conchiolin 
exterior  does  not  easily  flake  off.  In  these  the 

133 


THE   PEARL 

outer  shell  is  composed  of  wave-like  plate  exten- 
sions, superimposed  one  upon  the  other  reced- 
ingly  from  the  lip  to  the  umbo  as  in  the  others, 
but  without  the  ridges,  the  plates  being  flat 
and  the  edges  more  irregular.  These  extensions 
are  formed  of  a  number  of  horizontal  composite 
plates,  which  penetrate  the  shell  to  the  mother- 
of-pearl. 

Not  only  may  they  be  separated  into  thinner 
horizontal  plates,  but  they  divide  vertically 
into  prisms.  Under  the  microscope  the  edge  of 
a  composite  plate  appears  as  a  number  of  prisms 
placed  side  by  side  lengthwise  across  the  plate 
edge,  but  showing  dark,  intersecting  lines 
through  the  series  where  they  divide  as  plates. 

These  prisms  appear  on  the  face  of  the  plates 
as  translucent  hexagons,  separated  by  dark 
lines  like  a  tessellated  floor,  and  under  a  powerful 
microscope  are  seen  to  be  composed  of  similar 
smaller  particles,  also  joined  together  by  a 
binder  of  tissue.  The  exposed  parts  of  the 
epidermis  plates,  forming  the  outer  skin  of  the 
shell,  are  more  dense  than  the  unexposed  por- 
tions ;  the  hexagonal  dividing  lines  are  thick  and 
blurred,  and  the  faces  are  almost  opaque, 

134 


GENESIS   OF   PEARLS 

whereas  in  the  unexposed  parts,  the  faces  are 
translucent  and  the  hexagonal  markings  are 
clear  and  fine. 

Though  constructed  in  the  same  way  through- 
out, these  plates  appear  to  follow  the  general 
plan  of  shell  construction,  the  preponderance  of 
calcium  carbonate  in  the  interior  parts  gradu- 
ally changing  to  an  excess  of  organic  matter  as 
they  become  exposed  to  form  the  outer  part  of 
the  shell.  The  outer  shell  is  in  some  varieties 
of  a  brownish-yellow  with  radiating  fan-like 
markings  of  a  deeper  tint  or  red ;  in  others,  dark 
gray  and  brown  to  almost  black.  Immediately 
under  the  surface,  the  plates  become  lighter  in 
color,  and  finally  almost  white  as  they  approach 
the  nacreous  interior. 

In  all  varieties  the  outer  plates  lie  almost 
parallel  with  the  extension  of  the  shell,  so  that, 
lapping  each  other  as  they  do,  the  outer  contour 
of  the  shell  is  raised  by  a  series  of  low  steps  from 
the  edge  to  the  umbo.  These  plates  appear  to 
have  been  superimposed  one  upon  the  other. 
On  the  contrary,  they  are  added  on  the  under 
side.  Starting  from  the  umbo,  which  is  the 
oldest  part,  the  shell  is  enlarged  by  the  addition 

135 


THE   PEARL 

of  a  succession  of  plates  from  beneath,  each 
series  extending  a  little  beyond  its  predecessor, 
the  rough  conchiolin  fringe  at  their  extremities 
forming  the  outer  covering  of  the  shell.  Fol- 
lowing the  growth  of  the  epidermis,  the  shell  and 
the  lining  are  also  extended  and  built  up,  so 
that  the  entire  shell  is  constantly  pushed  to 
dimensions  necessary  for  the  proper  and  com- 
modious housing  of  its  growing  tenant. 

Under  the  thin  coat  of  epidermis  on  the  Unio 
nigger-head,  is  a  stratum  of  prism  plates  similar 
to  the  outer  plates  of  the  Venezuelan  oyster. 
The  prism  faces  are  however  smaller  and  the 
organic  intersections  are  thicker  and  darker. 
Immediately  under  and  abutting,  is  another 
series  of  plates  which  penetrate  the  shell 
almost  horizontally  at  the  lip  end,  to  the  lining ; 
diagonally  at  the  thick  part  of  the  shell  near 
the  umbo  to  another  series  of  the  same  kind. 
Here,  owing  to  their  diagonal  set,  upon  peeling 
off  the  epidermis  and  the  epidermis  plates,  the 
edges  appear  as  a  series  of  fine  lines  curving 
about  and  spreading  out  from  the  umbo.  The 
plates  set  outward,  away  from  the  umbo,  from 
the  lower  or  inner  edge. 

136 


GENESIS  OF   PEARLS 

The  effect  is  similar  to  that  made  by  a  pack 
of  cards  set  diagonally  so  as  to  spread  the  edges 
sufficiently  to  show  the  merest  trifle  of  the  faces 
of  the  cards  between  the  edges.  The  arrange- 
ment of  these  plates,  not  only  produces  a  series 
of  fine  lines  curving  about  the  umbo,  but,  as 
the  edges  are  slightly  irregular,  another  series 
of  fine  lines  cross  the  others  at  right  angles, 
radiating  from  the  umbo.  This  doubly  striated 
surface,  by  interference,  produces  an  iridescence 
more  full  of  color  than  the  mother-of-pearl  of 
any  but  the  thin  shelled  varieties. 

Though  similar  in  construction,  these  plates 
differ  from  those  of  the  epidermis.  In  some 
respects  they  suggest  a  transitional  stage 
between  the  outer  and  inner  shell.  A  plate,  as 
it  separates  from  the  series  and  which  appears 
as  one  line  in  the  striated  surface  of  plate  edges, 
is  in  reality  a  number  of  very  thin  plates,  or 
waves,  so  welded  together  that  they  cannot 
easily  be  separated.  In  this  and  the  presence 
of  fine  surface  -lines  marking  the  wave  edges, 
they  resemble  the  nacreous  plates. 

The  composite  plate  is  opaque,  but  when 
split  so  that  light  can  penetrate  there  appears 

137 


THE   PEARL 

on  the  face,  markings  similar  to  the  unexposed 
portions  of  the  Venezuelan  epidermis  plates  only 
the  hexagonal  faces  are  very  much  smaller  and 
less  distinct.  So  also  the  edge  of  the  composite 
plate  appears  as  series  of  prisms  crossing  it  from 
face  to  face  on  the  plate,  in  sets  which  show 
plainly,  lines  marking  the  juncture  of  the 
individual  plates  or  waves.  Although  the 
individual  plates  or  waves,  can  only  be  sepa- 
rated with  great  difficulty,  together,  as  com- 
posite plates,  they  can  be  flaked  off  from  the 
shell  very  easily,  and  they  crumble  and  break 
into  fragments  under  slight  pressure.  The 
component  plates  or  waves  are  very  thin,  and 
appear  under  the  microscope  as  white  and 
translucent  planes  marked  by  outlines  of  the 
prism  faces. 

The  inner  series  of  these  plates  as  they  near 
the  nacreous  lining  become  harder  and  more 
compact,  and  incline  more  and  more  to  a 
horizontal  position,  so  that  at  the  point  where 
they  abut  upon  the  nacre  it  is  not  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  nacreous  plates.  At 
the  thinner  end  of  the  shell,  about  the  edges, 
the  plates  are  all  of  this  nature.  They  grow 

138 


GENESIS  OF  PEARLS 

more  friable  and  chalky  as  they  incline  to  the 
perpendicular,  where  the  series  are  more  numer- 
ous and  are  situated  at  the  thicker  part  of  the 
shell  about  the  umbo. 

Adjoining  the  inner  edges  of  the  middle  shell 
plates  is  the  nacreous  lining.  In  this  the 
calcium  carbonate  takes  the  same  form  as  the 
mineral  aragonite  and  is  identical  with  it.  As 
a  mass  however,  the  specific  gravity  is  somewhat 
less,  owing  to  the  inclusion  of  organic  matter 
with  the  mineral  in  the  shell.  This  material  is 
harder,  finer,  more  compact,  and  contains  less 
organic  matter  than  that  of  which  the  middle 
and  outer  shell  is  composed. 

The  lining  is  constructed  of  thin  waves  of 
transparent  calcium  carbonate  set  in  animal 
tissue  of  great  tenuity.  This  is  the  mother-of- 
pearl,  and  the  gem  differs  from  it  only  in  its 
more  or  less  rounded  and  independent  forma- 
tion. The  plates  of  which  the  lining  is  composed 
lie  almost  parallel  to  the  plates  of  the  epidermis. 
They  are  bent,  a  little  toward  the  interior  at 
the  inner  surface  of  the  shell,  but  the  general 
sectional  structure  of  a  shell,  cutting  from  the 
umbo  to  the  lip,  is  fairly  represented  by  that 

139 


THE   PEARL 

stem  of  the  letter  X  which  extends  from  the 
right  upper  to  the  left  lower,  the  diagonal  line 
representing  the  middle  shell;  the  horizontal 
lines  at  the  extremities  show  the  general  trend 
of  the  epidermis  and  the  nacreous  lining.  The 
diagonal  trend  downward  is  from  the  epidermis 
toward  the  boss-end  of  the  shell. 

The  nacreous  plates,  or  mother-of-pearl, 
unlike  those  of  the  middle  shell  of  the  nigger- 
head,  cannot  be  easily  separated.  On  cutting 
them  across  the  grain  they  appear  as  distinct 
and  separate  strata  and  show  dividing  lines,  yet 
the  mass  is  compact  to  a  great  degree.  Upon 
being  broken,  these  strata  separate  only  at  the 
edges,  so  that  the  entire  set  usually  breaks 
diagonally,  showing  a  small  strip  of  the  surface 
of  each  plate  along  the  broken  edge  and  forming 
a  series  of  ragged  edge  steps. 

These  plates  or  strata  are  composed  of  a  great 
many  very  thin  waves  following  one  upon  the 
other,  and  thereby  producing  series  of  fine, 
irregular  lines  upon  the  surface  which,  though 
trending  generally  in  straight  lines,  curve  and 
twist  about  as  do  the  edges  of  water  waves,  when 
they  run  up  on  the  sands  of  the  sea-shore.  It  is 

140 


GENESIS   OF   PEARLS 

the  lapping  of  these  thin  transparent  waves, 
and  the  minute  undulations  of  the  layer  edges 
reflecting  through  the  transparent  plates,  which 
produce  the  soft  luster  peculiar  to  the  linings 
of  the  shells  and  the  surface  of  pearls,  and  which 
is  known  as  "pearly." 

The  wave  edges  do  not  usually  produce 
iridescence,  but  if  the  waves  are  very  thin  and 
transparent  the  undulating  lines  of  many  under 
waves  following  close  upon  each  other  appear 
on  the  surface,  under  the  microscope,  as  dark 
lines  when  the  light  is  passed  through  the  skin, 
or  silvery  lines  if  the  light  be  thrown  upon  it 
from  above ;  to  the  naked  eye  this  becomes  the 
tempered  brilliancy  of  the  pearl's  orient.  Under 
the  microscope  these  waves  appear  to  be  con- 
structed of  minute  hexagonal  plates  or  prisms 
set  in  animal  membrane. 

A  set  of  waves  forming  a  plate,  when  broken 
at  right  angles  to  the  trend  of  the  wave,  shows 
under  the  microscope  a  rough  irregular  edge, 
and  the  small  plates  of  which  they  are  composed 
sometimes  appear  separated  individually  from 
the  mass  though  more  often  they  are  dislodged 
in  clusters  or  strips.  Broken  with  the  trend  of 

141 


THE   PEARL 

the  wave  edges,  the  plate  breaks  diagonally  in 
steps  with  undulating  edges,  which  correspond 
in  appearance  with  the  successive  underlying 
waves  as  they  are  seen  through  the  surface  under 
the  microscope. 

Although  distinct  dividing  lines  between  the 
plates  appear  when  a  sectional  cut  is  made 
across  the  grain,  there  is  no  indication  of  a 
division  between  the  waves  which  make  up  the 
plates,  and  there  is  no  apparent  difference  in 
the  structure  or  compactness  at  the  junction 
of  the  plates  though  a  clean  division  can  only 
be  made  there.  It  would  appear,  therefore, 
that  the  plates  mark  intervals  in  the  process  of 
construction  and  that  the  animal  tissue  is  some- 
what thicker  between  the  plates  than  between 
the  waves  of  which  they  are  composed,  where 
the  formative  process  has  been  continuous. 

In  all  parts  of  the  shell,  the  calcium  carbonate 
takes  the  hexagonal  form :  in  the  nacre,  as  thin 
waves  composed  of  hexagonal  faces,  and  in  the 
middle  shell  and  epidermis,  as  plates  of  hex- 
agonal particles  grouped  as  hexagonal  prisms 
whose  terminations  form  the  front  and  back  of 
a  plate.  All  the  parts  show  a  similar  plan  of 

142 


GENESIS  OF   PEARLS 

construction,  i.e.,  separable  plates  composed  of 
thinner  plates  more  compacted  together,  and 
these  in  turn  of  infinitesimal  hexagons  of  cal- 
cium carbonate ;  full  plates,  component  plates, 
and  particles,  all  alike  surrounded  by  animal 
tissue. 

The  shell  is  built  up  of  secretions  from  the 
water  in  which  the  oyster  lives,  made  by  the 
mantle,  a  membraneous  covering  of  the  fish. 
The  function  of  this  mantle,  in  part,  is  to 
obtain  from  the  water  the  elements  required 
and  exude  it  at  different  parts  of  its  folds 
in  the  various  forms  required  for  the  several 
parts  of  the  shell.  The  necessary  lime  exists 
in  the  surrounding  water  and  is  supplied  some- 
times by  the  calcareous  beds  upon  which  the 
oysters  grow,  and  in  other  cases  by  surrounding 
vegetation. 

In  all  mother-of-pearl  oysters  and  the  fresh- 
water mussel  unio,  the  lining  is  usually  quite 
thick,  but  in  some  pearl-bearing  species  having 
small,  frail  shells,  it  is,  though  beautiful,  too 
thin  to  be  of  use.  In  the  meleagrina,  this 
nacreous  lining  lies  in  the  interior  of  the  shell 
like  a  congealed  pearl  wave,  the  smooth  even 

143 


THE  PEARL 

rim  following  the  curve  of  the  shell  about  an 
inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  within  the  jagged  edge 
of  the  epidermis,  as  shown  in  the  Manilla  shell 
illustrated  herewith,  in  which  the  lip,  usually 
trimmed  off  for  commercial  purposes,  is  pre- 
served. The  lining  of  the  meleagrina  is  not  as 
iridescent  as  that  of  the  thin  shell  varieties. 

Thus  the  shell  is  being  constantly  enlarged  at 
the  edge,  by  a  deposit  of  the  exudations  of  the 
mantle;  conchiolin  for  the  epidermis  outside, 
lime  for  the  prisms  and  inner  layers  of  trans- 
parent plates,  until  the  shell  has  attained  its 
full  growth  in  size,  after  which  some  varieties 
continue  to  lay  on  nacre  only. 

The  linings  of  some  have  a  black  rim,  extend- 
ing from  the  hinge  on  one  side,  around  the  edge 
to  the  hinge  on  the  other  side.  Viewed  from  the 
edge  this  dark  band  appears  to  be  a  sixteenth 
to  half  an  inch  wide  (widest  at  the  lip),  fading 
out  as  it  becomes  lost  under  the  thicker  white 
nacre  of  the  interior,  but  turn  the  shell  up  and 
look  at  it  squarely  from  the  front  and  it  is  black 
only  around  the  extreme  edge  where  it  joins 
the  epidermis.  This  kind  of  shell  is  found  in 
the  Pacific  about  the  islands  of  Polynesia  and  is 

144 


MANILA     PEARL-SHELL    WITH     THE     LIP    CONSERVED 


GENESIS  OF  PEARLS 

called  the  black  shell.  In  others  the  nacre  is 
white  to  the  edge.  The  iridescence  of  the 
white  shell  generally  shows  more  play  of  color 
than  that  of  the  black.  The  white  shell  is 
usually  somewhat  flatter  and  broader  than  the 
black,  and  the  epidermis  is  light  yellowish- 
brown.  This  variety  is  found  in  great  abun- 
dance on  the  northern  and  western  coasts  of 
Australia.  The  yellow,  greenish  and  grayish 
shells  (these  colors  refer  to  the  edge  of  the 
lining),  are  similar  in  every  way,  but  inferior, 
the  yellow  being  the  best  of  the  three. 

The  shell  lining  of  a  common  form  of  the 
unio,  or  fresh  water  mussel  pictured  at  page  146, 
like  that  of  the  meleagrina,  shows  little  iri- 
descence except  at  the  edges  outside  the  pallial 
lines,  where  the  nacre  is  comparatively  thin, 
and  at  the  striated  surface  of  the  scar  or  bed  of 
the  adductor  muscle.  In  quality  of  color  and 
luster  it  is  inferior  to  the  nacre  of  the  sea  fish, 
the  white  being  more  chalky  in  appearance  and 
the  luster  less  pearly.  The  material  of  which 
the  shell  is  composed  and  its  construction  are 
however  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  salt- 
water mollusk.  In  fact  all  shells  are  made  of 
10  145 


THE   PEARL 

the  same  ingredients  and  are  constructed  on  the 
same  general  principles  by  the  animals  inhabit- 
ing them. 

This  description  of  pearl  shells  has  been  given 
here  because  a  knowledge  of  the  shell  enables 
one  to  understand  the  formation  and  character- 
istics of  a  true  pearl,  and  the  differences  which 
exist  between  the  gem  and  other  similar  forma- 
tions formed  in  pearl  and  other  oysters,  mussels, 
and  univalves.  Many  such  formations  are 
found,  having  the  elements  and  constructed 
like  one  or  both  of  the  outer  parts  of  the  shell, 
and  some,  in  part  like  the  lining,  but  these  are 
not  true  pearls;  the  gem  has  neither  the 
material  nor  construction  of  the  middle  and 
outer  shell.  Except  that  the  pearl,  because  of 
its  form,  is  rarely  iridescent  even  to  a  slight 
degree,  whereas  the  nacreous  lining  of  some 
pearl-bearing  shells  is  brilliantly  so,  the  pearl 
and  the  nacre  of  the  shell  in  which  it  grows,  are 
essentially  the  same.  Pearls  are  more  or  less 
spherical  and  independent  formations,  made  by 
the  fish  on  the  same  plan  and  from  the  same 
secretions  with  which  it  lines  the  shell,  mis- 
directed by  abnormal  conditions.  Those  con- 


MISSISSIPPI     NIGGERHEAI)    PFARL     VUSSEL 


GENESIS   OF   PEARLS 

structed  like  any  other  part  of  the  shell  are  not 
true  pearls. 

The  normal  instinctive  action  of  the  mollusk 
is  self -protective  and  adaptive.  By  the  secre- 
tive action  of  its  mantle  it  gathers  from  the 
water  in  which  it  lives,  material  to  build  a  shell 
with  a  rough  and  rugged  exterior  for  its  enemies, 
and  adapted  to  resist  the  chemical  activities 
by  which  it  is  surrounded,  and  a  perfectly 
smooth  lining  suitable  as  an  interposition  for  its 
own  delicate  organism. 

Barring  accidents,  the  building  functions  of 
the  animal  are  employed  only  in  the  extension 
of  the  shell  to  meet  the  needs  of  its  own  growth 
and  protection.  But  should  a  particle  of 
secretion  intended  for  the  shell,  harden  within 
the  folds  of  the  oyster's  mantle,  or  some  parasite 
or  other  intruder  present  itself  within  the  nacre- 
forming  sphere,  the  instinctive  action  which 
lines  the  rougher  part  of  the  shell  is  also  directed 
toward  the  foreigner,  and  it  is  at  once  covered 
with  a  like  deposit.  This  is  the  birth  of  a  pearl, 
and  it  grows  layer  by  layer  as  long  as  it  remains 
within  the  scope  of  the  nacre  building  instinct. 
These  layers,  or  skins  as  they  are  called,  are 

147 


THE  PEARL 

seldom  iridescent.  Occasionally  a  pearl  of  that 
character  is  found,  but  it  is  generally  from 
a  fresh  water  mussel,  and  the  nacreous  plates 
are  of  unusual  tenuity. 

Although  the  pearl  like  the  lining  of  the 
mollusk's  shell  is  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime 
in  series  of  thin  waves  lapping  each  other,  each 
series  constituting  a  plate  or  separable  layer, 
there  is  a  distinct  difference  in  construction. 

Whereas  the  lining  is  a  series  of  horizontal 
layers,  the  pearl  is  made  up  of  concentric  layers, 
each  addition  enveloping  those  preceding  it. 
These  skins  however  are  not  always  absolutely 
distinct  and  separate.  Instead  of  being  like 
a  succession  of  globular  skins,  each  completely 
covered  by  its  successor,  the  growth  is  often 
spiral  and  the  construction  is  as  if  the  nucleus 
had  been  rolled  one,  two,  or  three  complete 
revolutions  in  a  continuous  plate  of  nacre,  and 
the  spiral  envelope  then  finally  merged  into 
another  plate  and  the  process  repeated.  That 
which  to  a  casual  glance,  therefore,  appears  to 
be  six  rings  of  nacre  in  a  sectional  cut,  is  in 
reality,  several  spirals  of  two  or  three  turns 
each. 

148 


GENESIS  OF   PEARLS 

It  is  also  noticeable  that  whereas  the  wave 
edges,  with  all  their  eccentricities,  trend  gener- 
ally in  one  direction  in  the  shell  nacre,  in  the 
pearl,  the  lines  twist  and  curl  with  a  concentric 
tendency,  as  though  the  waves  had  been  laid 
on  by  turning  or  rolling  the  pearl  in  the  material 
of  which  it  is  composed. 

A  white  pearl  on  being  cut  in  half  shows  a 
number  of  faint  dark  rings  one  within  the  other, 
from  the  surface  to  the  nucleus  in  the  centre; 
usually  these  rings  occur  at  almost  regular 
intervals.  Upon  close  examination  under  the 
microscope,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  inner  part 
of  these  intervals  is  white,  and  that  the  color 
gradually  changes  to  a  yellowish  tint  which 
deepens  until  it  culminates  in  that  which  appears 
as  a  dark  line  against  the  succeeding  outer 
formation,  the  material  of  which  is  also  white 
in  the  beginning.  Although  this  change  of 
color  is  very  slight,  a  section  between  two  rings 
will  often  show  three  distinct  bands ;  the  inner 
white,  the  centre  one  faintly  yellow  and  the 
outer  one  of  a  deeper  tint.  .In  some  cases  the 
dark  concentric  rings  succeed  each  other  very 
closely,  in  which  case  no  abrupt  changes  of 

149 


THE   PEARL 

color  between  them  are  noticeable.  The 
material  occupying  the  space  between  the  rings 
is  the  sectional  appearance  of  the  skin  of  pearl. 
Upon  applying  a  weak  acid  to  the  surface  of  an 
entire  section  of  a  pearl,  it  effervesces,  and  the 
inner  colorless  parts  of  the  bands  are  at  once 
attacked.  After  several  hours  the  white  inner 
part  of  the  skins  will  show  depressions  where 
the  calcium  carbonate  has  been  dissolved,  and 
the  outer  parts  of  the  skins  will  be  marked  by 
coarse  black  rings  of  undissolved  animal  tissue, 
similar  in  appearance  to  the  epidermis  of  the 
shell.  Now  as  these  skins  are  made  up  of  many 
very  thin  waves  of  calcium  carbonate  lapping 
each  other  and  set  in  animal  tissue,  it  would 
appear,  therefore,  that  in  the  beginning  these 
waves  of  transparent  calcium  carbonate  are  set 
in  animal  tissue  of  extreme  tenuity  and  that 
the  proportion  of  animal  tissue  increases  with 
the  growth  of  the  skin  until  it  reaches  a  stage 
provocative  of  a  new  skin,  which  begins  with 
purer  layers  of  the  smoother  crystallized  mineral 
like  its  predecessor,  and  identical  with  the 
nacre  of  the  shell.  If  this  be  so,  it  would  account 
for  the  various  tints  of  color  and  degrees  of 

150 


GENESIS   OF   PEARLS 

luster  in  white  pearls  and  for  the  fact  that  the 
outer  skins  of  very  lustrous  pearls  are  usually 
very  thin  also.  Similar  conditions  exist  in 
colored  pearls,  though  the  presence  of  a  pig- 
ment makes  them  less  noticeable.  The  skins  of 
the  haliotis  pearl,  which  separate  easily,  usually 
show  remarkable  luster  on  the  inner  surface. 
Sometimes  the  nucleus  is  surrounded  by  a 
confused  mass  without  apparent  concentric 
markings,  as  though  it  had  been  enveloped  in 
nacre  which  had  solidified  while  stationary, 
or  the  first  deposit  shows  the  concentric  skin 
arrangement  at  one  segment  of  the  circle  only; 
followed  by  layers  which  appear  in  the  depres- 
sions of  the  mass  and  are  continued  until  they 
finally  include  the  whole  pearl.  These  layers 
are  usually  very  thin,  and  the  partial  or  seg- 
mentary  layer  formation  is  quite  common  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  pearl's  growth.  At  that 
period  the  concentric  lines  are  also  irregular, 
and  in  many  cases  where  the  curve  is  true,  they 
extend  about  one  quarter  of  the  circumference 
only,  another  concentric  skin  being  lapped  on 
the  ends,  as  though  the  globular  skin  had  been 
formed  in  sections. 

151 


THE   PEARL 

As  before  stated,  it  often  happens  that  the 
skin  division  lines  are  spiral,  as  though  the 
nucleus  had  been  rolled  one  way  in  the  nacreous 
material.  In  all  cases  the  first  deposits  of  a 
skin,  that  is  the  first  of  the  nacreous  waves  of 
which  a  skin  is  composed,  appear  to  be  most 
transparent  and  lustrous.  The  component 
waves  of  nacre  then  gradually  become  more 
impregnated  with  animal  tissue  until  they 
apparently  reach  a  stage  which  induces  either 
a  rest  on  the  part  of  the  fish,  to  gather  nacreous 
material,  or  a  new  deposit  of  less  impure  nacre, 
to  protect  itself  from  the  increasing  impurity 
of  the  pearl's  skin. 

The  skins  undoubtedly  mark  certain  stages 
in  the  formation  of  the  pearl,  though  the  skin 
and  the  nacreous  waves  of  which  it  is  composed 
are  often  confounded.  In  the  skinning  of  pearls 
an  entire  skin  is  seldom  peeled  off.  The  surface 
is  scraped,  a  number  of  the  component  waves 
being  taken  off,  until  the  luster  is  improved  and 
it  is  then  supposed  that  the  entire  outer  skin 
has  been  removed.  A  close  examination  how- 
ever, will  show,  by  breakages  in  the  surface  of 
the  waves,  that  the  under  skin  with  its  peculiar 

152 


GENESIS   OF   PEARLS 

and  systematic  arrangement  of  surface  wave 
edges,  has  not  been  reached. 

A  sectional  view  as  seen  in  a  half  pearl  would 
lead  one  to  infer  that  a  free  pearl  in  the  begin- 
ning lies  stationary  in  the  oyster;  is  turned  or 
partially  rolled  as  it  grows  larger;  and  finally, 
on  attaining  about  a  one  grain  size,  is  kept  in 
constant  motion  with  a  concentric  rolling  in 
the  nacreous  exudations  of  the  mantle  which 
are  deposited  upon  it. 

The  nuclei  of  pearls  were  long  thought  to  be 
grains  of  sand,  but  late  and  careful  research 
has  shown  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  they 
are  minute  parasitic  or  domiciliary  worms. 

Professor  Herdman  and  James  Hornell,  after 
three  consecutive  inspections  of  the  oyster 
banks  in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  in  1902-3,  stated 
in  a  paper  contributed  to  the  British  Associa- 
tion for  the  advancement  of  science,  that  after 
examining  many  hundreds  of  oysters  and 
decalcifying  a  large  number  of  pearls,  they  had 
come  to  the  conclusion,  that  grains  of  sand  and 
other  inorganic  particles  formed  the  nuclei  of 
pearls  only  under  exceptional  circumstances,  as 
for  instance,  when  the  shell  was  injured  by  the 

153 


THE   PEARL 

breaking  of  the  ears,  which  would  enable  sand 
to  get  into  the  interior. 

Pearls,  or  pearly  excrescences  on  the  interior 
of  the  shell,  were  due  to  the  intrusion  of  leuco- 
dore,  clione  and  other  borers.  Pearls  found  in 
the  mussels,  especially  at  the  levator  and  pallial 
insertions,  were  formed  around  calcospherules, 
minute  calcareous  concretions  produced  in  the 
tissues.  But  most  of  the  fine  pearls  found  free 
in  the  body  of  the  Ceylon  oyster,  contained  the 
remains  of  platyhelminthian  parasites.  These 
observations  agree  with  the  opinions  formed, 
after  careful  study,  by  several  eminent  con- 
chologists. 

The  action  of  the  mollusk  results  differently 
as  the  object  to  be  covered  is  free  within  the 
folds  of  the  creature's  mantle  or,  rising  above 
the  surface  of  the  nacreous  lining,  presses  upon 
it.  If  free,  the  intruder  is  enveloped  by  the 
animal's  exudations  and  the  deposits  become 
concentric  instead  of  level,  or  nearly  so,  as  in 
the  construction  of  the  shell.  It  is  said  that  the 
foreign  substance  acts  as  an  irritant,  causing  the 
fish  to  exude  its  secretions  abnormally  in  order 
to  protect  itself,  and  thereby  creating  a  diseased 

154 


GENESIS   OF   PEARLS 

condition;  but  from  the  fact  that  the  process 
continues  after  the  intruder  has  been  enveloped 
and  rendered  as  non-irritant  as  the  natural 
lining  of  the  shell,  it  would  appear  that  the 
introduction  of  a  foreign  element  simply  draws 
upon  it  the  normal  impulse  of  the  fish  to  cover 
with  nacre  anything  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact,  and  that  the  method  of  doing  it  is 
similar  to  the  instinctive  rolling  action  of  the 
tongue  when  some  insoluble  globule  is  put  in 
the  mouth,  for  not  only  do  free  pearls  grow 
spherically,  but  a  nucleus  fast  to  the  shell 
is  not  covered  simply  but  it  grows  to  a  pearl, 
round  and  domelike,  as  nearly  spherical  as 
its  juncture  with  the  shell  will  permit. 

Not  only  is  the  composition  of  a  pearl  iden- 
tical with  the  lining  of  the  shell  where  it  is 
formed,  but  in  a  general  way  its  appearance 
and  characteristics  are  the  same,  except  that 
free  pearls  are  sometimes  colored  when  the 
nacre  of  the  shell  is  white. 

Button  pearls,  warts  and  baroques,  grown 
fast  to  the  shell,  are  usually  like  the  surround- 
ing nacre  in  every  respect. 

Salt-water  pearls  are  characterized  by  the 
155 


THE   PEARL 

soft  velvety  luster  of  the  oriental  mother-of 
pearl,  and  fresh-waters,  like  the  lining  of  the 
unio,  have  a  somewhat  thinner  looking  and 
more  chalky  texture. 

Abalone  pearls  have  the  irregular  surface  and 
coloring  of  the  haliotis.  Conch  pearls  resemble 
the  delicate  pink  china-like  lining  of  the  shell, 
and  clam  pearls  have  the  glazed  earthenware 
appearance  of  the  inside  of  a  clam  shell.  The 
one  material  difference  between  a  pearl  and  the 
lining  of  the  shell  in  which  it  grows  is,  that  in 
the  one  case  the  fish  deposits  the  nacre  over  an 
even  surface,  and  in  the  other  wraps  it  around 
a  central  point  with  delicate  precision  in  suc- 
cessive filmy  layers. 

Dissection  shows  that  a  pearl  during  growth 
is  liable  to  many  mishaps.  As  with  the  human 
creature,  a  promising  youth  may  end  in  a 
wretched  maturity.  It  is  also  possible  that  an 
ugly  period  may  be  redeemed  by  later  happen- 
ings, and  the  thing  that  was  worthless  in  its 
early  existence,  be  found  in  its  age  worthy  of 
a  place  among  the  great  gems.  Pearls  found 
with  a  dull,  chalky  exterior  sometimes  have 
lustrous  skins  beneath.  Sometimes  a  bony- 

156 


GENESIS   OF   PEARLS 

looking  formation  will  be  found,  on  breaking 
it,  to  have  a  variety  of  skins  in  the  interior, 
some  of  which  are  very  lustrous,  others  white 
and  chalky,  like  the  middle  shell  of  the  mollusk. 
Many  of  these  dead  pearls  are  formed  through- 
out of  this  material.  Others,  perfectly  spherical, 
are  simply  successive  layers  of  prism  groups 
like  the  conchiolin  plates  of  the  shell.  Upon 
cutting  these  through  the  centre  the  skins  are 
shown  by  the  concentric  rings  marking  their 
divisions  and  the  prismatic  formation  appears 
as  glistening  lines  radiating  from  the  nucleus 
to  the  surface.  Under  the  microscope  these 
layers,  which  are  thicker  than  the  nacreous 
skins  of  true  pearls,  appear  identical  with  the 
epidermis  plates,  except  that  they  are  concen- 
tric instead  of  flat,  and  are  free  from  the  coarse, 
rough,  conchiolin  deposit  which  forms  the 
extreme  outer  coating  of  the  shells.  This 
deposit  is  also  found,  however,  in  some  pearl 
formations,  as  many  of  the  abalone  baroques, 
especially  when  they  are  somewhat  flat  in 
shape,  are  like  two  pearl  blisters  joined,  with 
the  shell-building  process  reversed,  the  rough, 
black  conchiolin  being  inside,  and  the  nacre 

157 


THE  PEARL 

outside.  Undoubtedly  pearls  containing  hidden 
qualities  which  made  them  once  gems  are 
thrown  away  as  valueless,  while  others  found 
just  as  nature  had  covered  their  earlier  coarse- 
ness with  a  coat  of  beauty,  are  worn  and 
excite  much  admiration  for  their  skin-deep 
beauty. 

Though  the  successive  skins  of  a  pearl  do 
not  usually  vary  much  in  color,  except  in 
abalone  pearls,  it  does  happen  occasionally, 
for  the  removal  of  dark  yellow  skins  some- 
times discloses  another  of  better  color  —  a 
good  pink  for  instance.  From  the  sectional 
appearance  of  pearls  it  seems  probable,  that 
in  the  majority  of  cases  the  color  of  yellow 
pearls  would  be  improved  by  the  removal  of 
the  outer  waves  of  the  outer  skin. 

Changes  in  shape  sometimes  occur  during 
the  growth  of  the  pearl,  the  tendency  being 
always  toward  the  rounding  of  the  surface. 
If  the  nucleus  is  fast  to  the  shell,  a  dome 
is  built  over  and  around  it.  If  the  nucleus 
permits,  the  nacre  is  deposited  not  only  over 
but  under  its  edges  to  the  point  of  contact  with 
the  shell,  so  that  a  button  pearl  connected  with 

158 


GENESIS  OF  PEARLS 

the  shell  at  the  centre  only,  results.  Two  pearls 
held  against  the  shell  and  growing  side  by  side 
are  separately  enveloped  until  they  touch  each 
other,  after  which  they  are  included  in  single 
deposits  of  nacre  and  the  depression  between 
their  domes  becomes  less  distinct  with  each 
successive  coating.  Similarly,  a  cluster  of  small 
pearls  lying  together  often  forms  the  nucleus 
of  a  large  rounded  baroque  or  button  pearl. 
Examination  of  such  formations  shows,  that 
up  to  a  certain  period  the  pearls  have  a  separate 
existence  and  growth.  They  then  become 
joined  in  an  irregular  mass  of  twinned  pearls, 
and  finally,  if  allowed  to  remain  in  the  oyster 
long  enough,  all  individuality  is  lost  in  the 
tendency  to  round  over.  The  same  thing  occurs 
when  grains  of  sand  or  other  intrusions  become 
attached  to  a  growing  pearl.  They  are  quite 
prominent  when  first  included  in  the  nacreous 
deposit  and  can  be  easily  detached  from  the 
under  pearl  by  breaking  through  the  layer  which 
binds  them  on;,  but  they  are  soon  obliterated 
by  succeeding  deposits.  This  filling-in  process 
is  sometimes  accomplished  by  additional  layers 
in  the  depression,  sometimes  by  thicker  layers. 

159 


THE   PEARL 

It  happens  occasionally,  when  skinning  a 
round  pearl,  that  one  of  these  fillings  is  uncov- 
ered and  flakes  out,  leaving  the  pearl  irregular, 
as  it  was  in  a  former  stage  of  its  growth. 

Although  pearls  naturally  grow  spherically, 
many  free  pearls  are  more  or  less  buttoned,  that 
is,  have  a  flat  place  from  which  the  pearl  rises 
like  a  dome,  high  or  low.  This  happens  when 
the  pearl  is  held  during  growth  by  the  fish 
against  the  shell  with  a  part  of  its  body  inter- 
vening. According  to  circumstances,  the  pearl 
varies  in  form  from  slightly  button,  to  a  low 
dome,  rising  from  a  plane  at  its  greatest  diam- 
eter. Should  a  pearl  of  this  description  become 
dislodged,  the  rounding  action  of  the  mollusk 
would  begin  at  once  to  obliterate  the  plane. 

If  undisturbed,  the  process  would  result 
eventually  in  changing  the  button  to  a  round 
or  nearly  round  pearl,  but  should  the  pearl  be 
taken  from  the  fish  before  the  metamorphosis 
is  completed,  a  depression,  or  pit,  would  mar 
its  contour.  When  borers  intrude  through  the 
shell,  the  presentation  is  at  once  covered  with 
nacre,  and  successive  deposits  are  built  up 
around  it  resulting  in  the  nacreous  wart  known 

160 


VENEZUELAN    PEARL-SHELL,     SHOWING     BAROQUE 


GENESIS  OF   PEARLS 

as  a  baroque.  The  rounding  action  of  the 
mollusk  is  clearly  shown  in  these  excrescences, 
as  the  borer  is  not  simply  covered  and  levelled 
with  the  shell,  but  the  slight  elevation  above 
the  level  of  the  lining  receives  a  continuity  of 
concentric  deposits  which  finally  raise  it  very 
considerably  above  the  surface  and  separate  it 
in  construction  from  the  lining  to  which  it  is 
attached.  The  shell  herewith  reproduced  illus- 
trates the  result.  Borers  pierced  it  at  the  thick 
part  of  the  hinge,  and  burrowing  down,  entered 
the  interior  at  the  point  where  the  baroque  is 
shown.  In  rare  instances,  pearls  attached  to 
the  shell  do  escape  the  concentric  deposition, 
for  they  have  been  found  buried  under  even 
layers  of  nacre,  when  the  mother-of-pearl  was 
cut  up  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

From  the  appearance  of  the  strias  when  they 
are  divided  lengthwise,  pear-shaped  pearls 
appear  to  have  been  spherical  at  one  time. 
During  a  stage  in  the  growth,  the  forming 
layer  has  curved,  away  from  the  centre  at  one 
section  of  the  sphere  to  a  point.  Succeeding 
layers,  following  the  innovation,  are  deposited 
around  the  extension  until  it  becomes  suffi- 
ii  161 


THE  PEARL 

ciently  elongated  to  give  the  pearl  the  obovoid 
form. 

Many  pearls  are  shaped  like  a  capsule.  The 
ends  of  most  are  rounded  up  to  a  full  dome; 
some  have  somewhat  flatter  ends;  many  are 
long  and  cylindrical  like  an  ordinary  capsule; 
others  are  short  and  appear  in  shape  like  two 
high  button  pearls  joined  at  their  bases ;  while 
some  resemble  a  cartridge,  one  end  being  almost 
flat  and  the  other  a  somewhat  pointed  dome. 
It  is  noticeable  that  such  pearls  have  a  chalky 
line  around  the  middle,  and  sometimes  there 
is  a  lustrous  band  between  two.  These  chalky 
lines  are  found,  on  peeling  such  a  pearl,  to 
extend  through  all  the  interior  layers.  Simi- 
larly, a  high  button  joined  at  its  entire  circum- 
ference to  the  shell,  if  the  junction  is  abrupt, 
has  an  intersecting  chalky  line,  marking  the 
juncture  of  the  two,  between  the  luster  of  .the 
pearl  and  the  shell  lining.  If  the  base  of  the 
pearl  and  the  shell  form  a  curve  there  is  no 
chalky  line  of  demarcation. 

This  suggests  that  whenever  the  animal  is 
unable  to  envelop  the  thing  upon  which  the 
mantle  deposits  its  secretions  completely  or  is 

162 


GENESIS  OF   PEARLS 

not  in  touch  with  every  part  of  it,  there  is  at 
the  extremity  of  its  action,  an  unnacreous 
deposit,  corresponding  to  the  deposit  of  con- 
chiolin  or  calcite,  at  the  extreme  edge  of  the 
shell  which  precedes  the  nacreous  layers  follow- 
ing within  and  slightly  back  of  it.  As  the  luster 
of  the  pearl  arises  from  the  transparency  of  the 
calcium  carbonate  modified  by  the  undulating 
lines  formed  by  the  edges  of  the  wave-plates, 
it  may  be  that  the  lapping  action  of  the  mantle 
is  necessary  for  the  regular  formation  and 
crystallization  of  these  plates,  and  that  at 
points  beyond  the  reach  of  this  action,  the 
depositions  of  the  mantle  are  therefore  not 
pearly. 

Much  is  necessarily  conjectural  as  to  the 
modus  operandi  by  which  the  shell  and  the 
pearl  are  formed  but  the  invariable  tendency 
toward  sphericity  suggests  that  the  nucleus 
of  a  pearl,  when  free  within  the  mollusk's 
mantle,  is  not  only  enveloped  in  its  exudations, 
but  is  either  kept  constantly  moving  with  a 
rolling  motion  or  lapped  on  all  sides  by  the 
membrane  which  exudes  upon  it  the  nacreous 
material. 

163 


THE   PEARL 

The  instances  cited  of  the  short  capsule 
shaped  pearl  and  the  high  button  joined  to  the 
shell,  which  seem  to  escape  the  nacreous  deposit 
at  the  basis  of  the  domes,  favor  the  lapping  or 
licking  method  of  depositing  the  nacreous  so- 
lution and  this  action  by  the  mollusk  would 
result  in  a  constant  rolling  or  turning  motion 
imparted  to  the  object  if  it  were  free  within  the 
creature's  body.  The  licking  and  rolling  action 
of  the  mollusk,  modified  by  the  conceivable 
influences  of  position  in  the  shell,  would  account 
for  the  spherical  form  with  all  the  various  modi- 
fications in  which  the  pearl  is  found. 

To  account  for  the  variation  of  quality  which 
undoubtedly  exists  in  the  successive  skins  of 
some  pearls,  and  the  imperfections  in  the  nacre 
of  the  same  skin,  the  theory  has  been  advanced 
that  the  secretions  for  the  lining,  the  shell 
proper,  and  the  epidermis,  are  exuded  by  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  mantle;  the  pearl  traverses 
during  growth  these  different  bands  and  its 
skins  are  modified  by  the  secretions,  as  they 
come  within  the  various  zones  of  influence.  But 
there  are  several  facts  which  seem  to  oppose  the 
theory. 

164 


GENESIS   OF  PEARLS 

In  the  first  place  all  these  parts  of  the  mantle 
which  supply  the  material  for  the  epidermis, 
the  middle  shell,  and  the  lining,  are  enclosed 
within  the  shell  and  in  touch  with  the  lining  yet 
each  receives  the  exudations  of  that  part  of  the 
mantle  which  supplies  the  material  suitable  for 
it,  the  mantle  invariably  pushing  the  coarser 
excretions  outwardly  to  the  shell's  exterior. 
Again,  whatever  the  quality  of  the  skin  of  the 
pearl  may  be,  it  is  never  of  conchiolin  like  the 
outer  epidermis  and  though  sometimes  similar 
to  the  plates,  of  which  the  conchiolin  is  the 
exposed  fringe,  it  always  contains  sufficient 
nacre  to  render  the  surface  smooth.  The  fact 
that  the  skins  of  a  pearl  do  sometimes  corre- 
spond with  the  different  parts  of  the  shell,  and 
that  the  same  skin  on  the  surface  is  occasionally 
partly  nacreous  and  unnacreous,  in  connection 
with  the  variation  of  quality  which  exists  in 
the  internal  composition  of  the  skin,  favors  an 
idea  that  the  mixed  and  variable  quantity  of 
nacre  in  the  skins  may  be  caused  by  the  abnor- 
mal position  of  the  mantle  wrapped  about  the 
growing  pearl  which  would  thereby  come  more 
or  less  under  the  influence  of  the  calcite  and 

165 


THE  PEARL 

conchiolin  zones  distorted  from  their  normal 
extension  and  action. 

It  has  also  been  suggested  that  the  oyster 
deposits  the  nacreous  layer  in  a  fluid  state  and 
then  rests  until  the  deposit  hardens,  when  the 
process  is  repeated.  To  a  certain  extent  this 
may  be  true  though  apparently  it  could  not  be 
a  yearly  process  as  pearls  found  in  the  small 
varieties  of  the  avicula  which  mature  in  four 
to  six  years  and  die  out  in  seven  years,  often 
contain  a  greater  number  of  layers  than  the 
years  of  the  mollusk's  life,  and  no  pearl  is  ever 
found  with  a  soft  exterior,  though  it  seems 
possible  that  pearls  with  a  dead  white  chalky 
exterior  are  taken  from  the  oyster  at  a  period 
when  the  crystallization  of  the  outer  skin  has 
not  been  perfected,  or  that  they  have  escaped 
some  action,  chemical  or  of  the  animal,  necessary 
for  the  formation  of  the  lustrous  waves  of  nacre. 
Mr.  Ludwig  Stross,  who  has  had  much  experience 
at  the  pearl  fisheries,  says  that  he  has  frequently 
found  pearls  of  fair  size  in  shells  of  the  Lingah 
type  which  could  not  be  over  twelve  to  fifteen 
months  old.  Some  of  these  pearls  weighed  fully 
three  grains.  As  there  are  many  apparent 

166 


GENESIS  OF   PEARLS 

skins  in  a  pearl  of  that  size,  the  divisions 
could  not  mark  either  years,  seasons,  or  breed- 
ing periods.  In  some  experiments  made  by  Mr. 
Stross,  he  found  that  borings  made  to  the  inte- 
rior of  a  living  mollusk's  shell  were  closed  by  a 
film  of  hard  nacre  in  two  days. 

The  known  facts  about  a  pearl  are  these.  It 
is  composed  of  about  ninety-two  per  cent,  car- 
bonate of  lime,  about  six  per  cent,  organic 
matter  and  a  little  over  two  per  cent,  water  in 
combination  almost  identical  with  the  lining  of 
the  shell  in  which  it  grows  and  similar  to  the 
mineral  aragonite.  In  construction  it  is  usually 
a  series  of  layers,  which  can  sometimes  be  peeled 
off  entirely,  each  one  successively  enveloping 
its  predecessors  apparently  as  an  independent 
structure  though  itself  composed  of  a  number 
of  thin  lapping  waves.  Upon  cutting  through 
these  layers  the  divisions  appear  as  a  series  of 
rings  and  the  intervals,  though  composed  of 
many  thin  waves,  appear  compact.  It  grows 
spherically  or  .with  such  modifications  as  the 
exigencies  of  position  in  the  shell  would  reason- 
ably account  for.  These  facts  seem  to  justify 
the  hypothesis  that  a  foreign  substance  upon 

167 


THE  PEARL 

entering  the  shell  of  a  pearl  oyster  is  at  once 
enveloped  or  washed  in  the  creature's  exuda- 
tions ;  that  the  organic  matter  of  the  secretions 
forms  a  filmy  envelope  in  which  the  mineral 
contained  in  them  is  precipitated  or  crystal- 
lizes in  wave-like  layers  of  crystals  of  great 
tenuity,  and  that  as  these  layers  harden  the 
process  is  repeated,  and  that  during  the  process 
the  creature  either  revolves  the  object,  or  about 
it,  as  it  is  free,  or  fastened  to  the  shell.  It  is 
also  possible  that  changes  in  the  organic  matter 
interwoven  with  the  calcium  carbonate  may 
produce  some  chemical  action  resulting  in  the 
crystallization  of  the  lime,  and  the  crystalliza- 
tion in  turn  be  provocative  of  another  deposit, 
each  process  in  turn  being  almost  simultaneous 
and  that  the  process  is  continued  until  a  paucity 
of  mineral  in  the  exudations  induces  a  rest  for 
recuperation,  after  which  the  process  is  repeated, 
the  result  being  a  succession  of  composite  skins 
as  we  find  them.  Whatever  the  cause,  it  is 
evident  in  all  parts  of  the  shell  and  in  the  pearl 
that  continuity  of  construction  is  periodically 
arrested  to  be  resumed  upon  exactly  the  same 
plan,  except  that  the  material  used  in  the  suc- 

168 


GENESIS   OF   PEARLS 

ceeding  layer  of  the  pearl  may  be  formed 
occasionally  like  another  of  the  shell  sections 
though  usually  it  is  like  the  preceding  one. 

Marked  differences  in  the  same  skin  occur 
more  frequently  in  the  pearl  formations  of 
univalves.  The  skins  of  the  abalone  pearl 
especially,  are  frequently  nacreous  in  part  only. 

Pearl  oysters  are  found  in  immense  numbers 
on  banks  having  a  calcareous  foundation.  They 
are  extraordinarily  prolific,  the  spat  of  one 
oyster  being  estimated  at  upwards  of  several 
hundred  thousands  to  millions,  so  that  were  it 
not  for  the  natural  enemies  of  their  young  and 
the  liability  of  being  swept  away  and  scattered 
by  storms  before  they  have  anchored,  the  banks 
would  be  overcrowded  with  the  myriads  pro- 
duced. Some  idea  of  the  numbers  may  be 
gained  from  the  fact  that  during  the  fishing 
season  the  Ceylon  divers  raise  about  one  million 
each  day. 

The  oysters  are  seldom  found  in  water  with 
a  temperature  below  75  degrees  and  they  seem 
to  thrive  best  in  warm  sheltered  bays  and  inlets, 
especially  when  the  banks  are  situated  far  from 
the  equator.  They  attach  themselves  to  the 

169 


THE   PEARL 

beds  by  a  bunch  of  tough  threads  which  pass 
out  through  an  aperture  in  the  shells,  near  the 
hinge,  and  fasten  on  the  rocks  and  stones; 
consequently  the  oysters  do  not  lie  flat,  as  might 
be  supposed,  but  maintain  an  upright  position, 
hinge  down,  lip  end  up,  and  the  shell  slightly 
open  for  the  passage  of  the  food-laden  water, 
as  the  fresh- water  mussels  do.  These  threads 
are  called  the  beard  or  byssus,  and  are  composed 
of  material  similar  to  the  epidermis  of  the  shell. 

The  abalone,  which  is  a  univalve,  holds  on  to 
the  rocks  by  the  foot,  a  flat  muscular  appendage 
used  for  locomotion  and  also  as  an  anchor  on 
the  principle  of  the  leather  toy  known  to  boys 
as  a  sucker. 

Although  pearls  of  value  are  found  only  in 
shells  containing  mother-of-pearl,  a  small  pro- 
portion only  of  the  mother-of-pearl  shells  con- 
tains pearls,  and  many  varieties  in  which  pearls 
are  found  do  not  yield  enough  nacre  to  make  the 
shells  valuable.  The  size  of  the  meleagrina  in 
some  seas  is  remarkable.  That  at  page  127, 
photographed  from  a  Tuamotu  shell,  measures 
8J  inches  by  6|  inches  and  weighs  twenty-eight 
ounces  troy. 

170 


GENESIS  OF   PEARLS 

It  is  of  the  black-edge  variety,  contains  a 
large  quantity  of  fine  quality  mother-of-pearl, 
and  has  a  beautiful  small  pearl  attached  to  the 
lining  near  the  center  of  the  shell.  Though  large, 
it  is  not  full  grown.  It  is  probably  twelve  to 
fourteen  years  old  and  would  continue  to  lay 
on  mother-of-pearl  and  so  grow  thicker  and 
heavier  until  sixteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age, 
when  the  oyster  would  reach  maturity.  The 
Australian  white  shell  at  page  129  is  a  young 
shell — that  is,  it  has  not  attained  the  full  thick- 
ness and  weight  of  a  mature  shell.  The  shells 
at  pages  131  and  161  are  from  the  coast  of 
Venezuela;  they  measure  2}  by  2\  inches  and 
weigh  seven  pennyweights  each. 

The  common  form  of  the  pearl-bearing  fresh- 
water mussel  unio  (nigger-head)  is  illustrated 
at  page  146.  This  shell  measures  3!  by  2j 
inches  and  weighs  3^  ounces.  It  is  from  the 
Middle  West  of  the  United  States.  In  con- 
struction it  resembles  the  meleagrina,  the 
epidermis  being  dark,  though  not  as  rough  as 
that  of  the  oyster,  and  the  lining  white,  show- 
ing slight  iridescence  around  the  lip-edge  and 
to  a  greater  degree  on  the  adductor  muscle 

171 


THE   PEARL 

scar.  The  mother-of-pearl  under  the  epidermis 
at  the  thick  or  hinge  end  is  quite  iridescent,  and 
the  lines  which  make  the  color  play  are  plainly 
discernible  under  the  loup. 

The  largest  and  finest  pearls,  also  the  greatest 
number,  are  found  usually  in  distorted  shells. 
This  has  given  rise  to  the  idea  that  they  are  a 
symptom  of  disease  in  the  fish,  but  having  in 
mind  the  functions  of  the  three  zones  of  the 
creature's  mantle  by  which  they  supply  sepa- 
rately material  for  the  epidermis,  middle  shell 
and  lining,  one  may  conceive  that  if,  by  some 
extraordinary  cause,  the  secretions  of  one  of 
these  is  largely  withdrawn  from  the  natural 
channel,  the  losing  part  of  the  shell  would  warp 
the  normal  growth  of  the  others  to  its  own 
dwarf  age. 

When  the  nacre  grows  to  a  pearl,  contrary  to 
the  intent  of  nature,  instead  of  a  lining  for  the 
shell  endeavoring  to  keep  pace  with  the  growing 
oyster,  the  full-growing  exterior  is  distorted  in 
accommodating  itself  to  the  undersized  lining. 
In  view  of  the  fact  that  an  oyster  sometimes 
contains  a  large  number  of  pearls  (one  shell  in 
New  Caledonia  contained  256)  the  diversion  of 

172 


GENESIS  OF   PEARLS 

nacre  sufficient  to  cover  them,  or  to  produce 
one  large  pearl,  might  reasonably  be  expected 
to  result  in  a  considerable  distortion  of  the 
shell.  It  may  also  be  that  the  displacement  of 
the  mantle,  caused  by  the  wrapping  of  itself 
about  the  growing  pearl,  interferes  with  the 
even  deposit  of  shell  material  about  the  edges 
of  the  shell  and  so  distorts  it. 

Because  deformed  shells  are  more  fruitful  of 
pearls  some  have  advocated  the  practice  of 
throwing  perfectly- formed  shells  back  into  the 
sea  unopened,  but,  inasmuch  as  the  mother-of- 
pearl  of  the  shells  often  exceeds  in  value  the 
pearls  found  in  them,  this  is  not  likely  to  happen. 
Few  fisheries  could  be  made  to  pay  if  they  were 
fished  for  the  pearls  alone.  In  many  of  them 
the  shells  yield  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  value 
and  are  in  fact  the  sole  incentive  for  the  invest- 
ment of  the  necessary  capital. 

Luckily  for  the  world's  supply  of  pearls,  how- 
ever, the  disturbers  of  the  mollusk  which  cause 
these  gems  by  their  intrusions  appear  to  be 
more  abundant  in  waters  where  the  shell  is 
valueless,  the  banks  about  Ceylon  especially 
being  infested  with  the  cestodes  which  are 


THE   PEARL 

commonly  the  nuclei  of  Indian  pearls.  It  is 
interesting  also  to  learn  that  Mr.  James  Hornell 
(inspector  of  the  pearl  banks)  finds  these  worms 
in  another  stage  in  the  file-fish,  which  frequents 
the  banks  to  prey  upon  the  oysters,  and  con- 
fidently expects  to  find  them  in  the  adult  stage 
in  the  shark,  which  in  turn  devours  the  file-fish. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  Jameson  of  London  and 
others,  that  the  parasite  which  causes  the  forma- 
tion of  pearls  in  the  mussels  of  Europe  is  fre- 
quently the  larva  of  distomum  somaterce,  from 
the  eider-duck  and  scoter,  and  that  the  larva 
first  inhabits  Tapes,  or  the  cockle,  before  getting 
into  the  mussel. 

Generally  the  nuclei  appear  to  be  the  bodies 
or  eggs  of  minute  parasites — distoma,  filaria, 
bucephalus,  etc.,  and  they  vary  in  different 
localities  according  to  the  animal  life  of  the 
neighborhood.  In  the  still  parts  of  the  river 
Elster,  where  water-mites  (Limnochares  ano- 
dontce)  were  abundant,  Kuchenmeister  found 
that  the  mollusks  contained  more  pearls. 


174 


METHODS  OF  FISHING 


METHODS  OF  FISHING 

The  beds  of  the  marine  shell-fish  from  which 
pearls  are  taken  lie  always  under  water.  Unlike 
others  which  are  sometimes  left  exposed  by  the 
tides,  to  be  gathered  by  man  without  difficulty, 
the  pearl  oyster  is  never  left  uncovered  by  the 
sea.  It  is  found  usually  on  shoals  some  distance 
from  shore,  sometimes  but  five  to  seven  feet 
from  the  surface;  more  frequently  fifteen  to 
forty  feet  deep,  and  often  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  and  even  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  deep. 

Everywhere,  then,  man's  quest  for  pearls  is 
confronted  by  the  heaving,  restless  waters  of 
the  sea,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  rough 
and  turbulent,  frequently  lashed  to  furious 
racing  by  tropic  tempests  but  through  which 
he  must  in  any  case  go  to  get  them.  In  a  few 
places  where  the  beds  lie  in  shallow  inlets  and 
sheltered  bays  they  can  be  dredged,  but  almost 
universally  the  oysters  are  gathered  by  divers. 
During  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  when  storms 

12  I77 


THE   PEARL 

rage,  diving  is  very  dangerous  if  not  quite 
impossible;  but  when  the  song  of  the  sea  is 
hushed  to  low  crooning,  and  the  gentle  roll  of 
r/  the  waves  does  no  more  than  playfully  slap 
the  boats  in  passing,  then  in  the  seas  where 
men  dive  for  pearls  they  gather  to  the  harvest 
of  gems. 

There  are  two  ways  of  diving — naked,  and 
with  dress.  The  former  is  the  common  method 
throughout  the  Orient  and  is  practised  to-day 
after  the  same  manner  that  it  was  in  the  days 
of  the  Pharaohs  and  the  Caesars,  for  the  primi- 
tive method  survives  with  few  variations 
wherever  eastern  people  control  the  fisheries. 

In  the  fishing  season  one  sees  now  in  the  Red 
Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf  and  about  Ceylon, 
the  same  scenes  as  they  were  enacted  there 
before  Rome  was  a  city,  or  France  a  nation, 
or  the  Macedonians  overran  Egypt.  Naked 
divers,  diving  into  fifteen  to  forty  feet  of  water, 
use  few  aids.  They  grease  their  bodies,  put 
greased  cotton  in  the  ears  and  a  forked  stick, 
or  tortoise-shell  clip,  upon  the  nostrils  to  com- 
press them,  hang  a  wide-mouthed  wicker  basket 
or  net  at  the  waist,  and  they  are  ready. 

178 


METHODS  OF   FISHING 

There  are  several  methods  of  naked  diving: 
head-first  from  a  spring-board  attached  to  the 
side  of  the  boat,  as  the  Malabar  coast  Hindus 
and  some  of  the  Egyptians  do;  swimming  to 
the  bottom,  as  practised  in  the  deep  waters  of 
the  South  Sea ;  and  dropping  to  the  oyster  bed 
with  a  stone.  The  latter  is  the  most  common 
way  in  Indian,  Egyptian,  and  Arabian  waters, 
especially  where  the  banks  lie  in  forty  to  fifty 
feet  of  water. 

Standing  on  the  spring-board  a  few  seconds 
to  fill  his  lungs,  the  head-first  diver  suddenly 
plunges  overboard  and  passes  smoothly  and 
rapidly  through  the  water  straight  to  the  shoal 
below.  Gathering  quickly  as  many  oysters  as 
possible  while  his  breath  lasts,  he  places  them 
in  the  net  at  his  waist,  attaches  them  to  a  con- 
venient rope  hanging  from  the  boat's  side  and 
shoots  to  the  surface.  There  he  recuperates  by 
lazily  floating  about  if  the  water  is  shallow,  if 
deeper,  by  climbing  back  into  the  boat  for  his 
next  plunge.  If  diving  in  pairs,  one  rests  while 
his  partner  dives. 

Expert  divers  who  dive  singly  have  an 
attendant,  a  manduck,  who  attends  to  the  lines 

179 


THE  PEARL 

and  looks  out  for  his  interests  generally.  The 
manduck  drops  a  line  with  the  oyster  basket 
overboard  and  attaches  to  it  another  weighted 
with  a  forty  to  fifty  pound  stone.  These  are  so 
fastened  that  they  can  be  quickly  released.  The 
diver  then  drops  into  the  water  feet  first  and 
placing  his  foot  in  a  loop  in  the  line  over  the 
stone  puts  the  basket  on  it,  and  releasing  the 
lines,  sinks  to  the  bottom.  Disengaging  him- 
self, he  proceeds  to  fill  his  basket  while  the 
attendant  pulls  up  the  stone  and  adjusts  it  for 
the  next  descent.  When  ready  to  return  he 
signals  his  attendant,  and  holding  on  to  the 
line  with  the  basket  is  drawn  to  the  surface, 
occasionally  accelerating  his  own  return  by 
climbing  the  rope  hand  over  hand  at  the  same 
time.  He  rests  in  the  water  by  the  boat's  side 
until  ready  to  dive  again,  making  seven  or 
eight  descents  before  climbing  into  the  boat -for 
a  longer  rest  and  sun-bath. 

The  divers  of  India,  Arabia  and  the  Red  Sea 
are  natives  of  the  Madras  Presidency,  de- 
scendants of  Arab  fishers  at  Jaffna  in  Ceylon, 
Arabs,  and  Egyptian  Negroes.  They  travel 
long  distances  to  the  fisheries  and  there  are 

180 


METHODS  OF   FISHING 

many  of  them  between  the  Red  Sea  and  Ceylon. 
At  the  last  fishing  in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  there 
were  about  forty-five  hundred.  Their  dress 
during  the  time  of  the  fishing  consists  of  a  loin 
cloth  only.  They  have  many  hereditary  and 
class  superstitions,  chief  of  which  is  their  faith 
in  shark-charmers.  While  waiting  for  the  fish- 
ing to  begin  they  also  seek  to  get  from  the 
fates  an  inkling  of  the  luck  which  will  attend 
them.  One  common  method  is  by  breaking  a 
cocoanut  on  the  diving  stone;  the  more  clean 
and  even  the  break,  the  better  the  luck. 

The  mortality  among  divers  at  the  fisheries 
is  not  great  in  Asiatic  waters.  Pneumonia  is 
the  greatest  scourge,  fatalities  in  diving  being 
few.  It  is  necessary  however  to  select  robust 
men  for  depths  beyond  forty  feet;  compara- 
tively few  can  work  without  injurious  effects 
below  that. 

Some  curious  mixtures  of  ancient  days  and 
present  times,  of  the  Pharaohs  and  infant 
industries,  are  seen.  One  may  see  a  black  slave 
diver  in  the  Red  Sea  hanging  over  the  edge  of 
his  boat  taking  observations  through  an  old 
tin  kerosene  can  with  a  bit  of  glass  in  one  end  of 

181 


THE   PEARL 

it.  This  he  sinks  a  little  way  in  the  water  and 
gazes  through  it  below.  Presently  the  can  is 
discarded,  over  he  goes  and  returns  shortly 
with  a  few  shells;  while  near  by  a  clumsy 
monster  emerges  and  a  diver  in-  dress  climbs 
into  his  boat.  This  use  of  modern  tin  cans  and 
glass  is  adopted  in  seas  where  the  shells  are 
scattered  and  is  common  to  pearl-divers  the 
world  over. 

The  Moros  have  a  method  of  fishing  in  very 
calm  weather  peculiar  to  themselves.  They 
drop  a  three-prong  catcher  attached  to  a  rattan 
rope  upon  the  oyster  bunches  and  so  haul  them 
up  to  the  boat.  This  can  only  be  done  when  the 
sea  is  perfectly  still,  as  even  a  ripple  would 
render  a  sight  of  the  oysters  impossible.  Ordi- 
narily they  dive  to  any  depth  down  to  twenty 
fathoms. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce 
dress-diving  among  the  natives  of  the  east  but 
so  far  few  have  been  successful.  Results  from 
experiments  have  not  compared  favorably  with 
naked  diving  and  so,  with  few  exceptions,  naked 
diving  is  still  the  rule  in  the  east  where  natives 
control  the  fishings. 

182 


METHODS   OF   FISHING 

But  of  all,  the  Polynesians,  both  male  and 
female,  adhere  most  closely  to  the  old  way. 
Most  of  them  will  not  even  use  a  stone  to  assist 
the  descent,  and  they  probably  reach  greater 
depths  than  the  naked  divers  of  any  other  sea. 
Travellers  report  that,  at  a  coral  atoll  in  the 
Southern  Pacific  owned  by  the  French  govern- 
ment and  known  as  Hikuereu,  where  the  natives 
of  Tahiti  and  other  islands  flock  during  the 
season  to  fish  for  pearls,  the  boys  and  girls  and 
women  are  almost  as  expert  as  the  men. 

Whole  families  congregate  here,  remaining 
during  the  season  housed  in  huts  framed  of 
light  cocoanut  palms  roofed  with  leaves.  These 
they  bring  with  them,  some  coming  several 
hundred  miles.  The  shells  are  mostly  in  sixty 
to  seventy  feet  of  water;  some  however  are 
brought  from  a  depth  of  one  hundred  feet.  It 
is  reported  that  a  boy,  on  an  exhibition  dive, 
remained  under  water  for  two  minutes  and  forty 
seconds,  going  to  a  depth  of  a  little  over  one 
hundred  feet.  He  was  in  sight  all  the  time,  the 
water  being  so  transparent  that  he  could  be  seen 
on  the  bottom,  leisurely  selecting  pieces  of  coral 
for  the  officers  of  the  ship  above.  These  divers 

183 


THE   PEARL 

hang  in  the  water  by  one  hand  grasping  the  gun- 
wale of  the  boat  while  they  examine  the  bottom 
for  oysters  through  a  glass  which  they  hold 
below  the  surface  in  the  other  hand. 

When  shells  are  sighted  the  glass  is  discarded, 
the  lungs  are  filled  several  times  and  the  air 
expelled  slowly.  Upon  reaching  a  certain  fit 
condition  a  long  breath  is  taken  until  the  lungs 
are  inflated  to  their  utmost  capacity ;  the  diver 
then  suddenly  lets  go,  sinks  a  few  feet  below  the 
surface,  turns  quickly  and  head-first  swims 
rapidly  to  the  bottom. 

Arriving  there,  he  pulls  himself  along  by 
grasping  the  coral  branches  and  breaking  the 
shells  loose  from  their  anchorage  with  his  right 
hand,  which  is  protected  by  a  cloth  wrapping, 
and  stows  them  away  in  a  cocoanut  fibre  basket 
slung  over  the  shoulder.  This  done,  he  straight- 
ens himself  and  shoots  to  the  surface  with 
astonishing  rapidity,  seeming  to  leap  up  from 
the  water  as  he  arrives  with  almost  sufficient 
impetus  to  carry  him  into  the  waiting  canoe. 
In  a  few  minutes  he  is  ready  to  dive  again.  In 
some  localities  where  divers  were  employed  the 
women  were  preferred,  not  because  they  could 

184 


METHODS   OF   FISHING 

do  better  work  always,  but  one  could  depend 
on  them  more  safely.  This  was  true  of  the 
divers  in  Torres  Straits  between  Queensland 
and  New  Guinea. 

Before  dress-diving  was  introduced  these 
naked  natives  would  dive  into  ten  or  twelve 
fathoms  and  bring  up  an  oyster  under  each  arm. 
The  shells  were  large,  weighing  three  to  six 
pounds  together  and  sometimes  ten,  but  they 
contained  few  pearls  and  those  were  generally 
small.  As  they  were  brought  up  the  oysters 
were  searched  for  pearls  and  the  fish  used  for 
food.  The  shells  sold  in  Sydney  then  for  eight 
to  nine  hundred  dollars  the  ton.  Years  ago  the 
women  of  Chile  about  the  Bay  of  Concepcion 
claimed  as  a  right  the  fishing  for  mussels.  The 
men  rowed  them  out  to  the  beds  and  stuck  long 
poles  into  the  shoal  below,  down  which  the 
women  would  slide,  returning  with  both  hands 
full  of  mussels.  The  fishing  was  done  from 
canoes,  each  holding  one  man  and  one  woman. 
The  women  did  not  consider  this  a  hardship  but 
a  privilege  of  which  they  were  quite  jealous,  for 
they  devoted  the  proceeds  of  their  catch  to  the 
purchase  of  finery. 

185 


THE  PEARL 

Wonderful  stories  are  told  of  the  great  depths 
to  which  these  naked  divers  go  and  the  great 
length  of  time  they  can  remain  under  water. 
Many  of  these  tales  are  gross  exaggerations, — 
yarns  which  have  grown  more  wonderful  with 
the  telling,  or  the  reports  of  careless  or  inex- 
perienced observers.  As  a  matter  of  fact  at  most 
of  the  fisheries,  twenty  to  thirty  feet  is  good 
diving,  and  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  is  the  maxi- 
mum depth.  Sixty  to  eighty  seconds  is  the  aver- 
age limit  of  time  they  remain  under  water.  If 
one  will  try  to  hold  the  breath  for  sixty  seconds, 
even  while  remaining  perfectly  still,  it  will  be 
at  once  understood  that  to  do  so  while  moving 
and  working  rapidly  under  water  is  a  great  feat. 
Nevertheless  there  have  been  instances  undoubt- 
edly, where  naked  divers  have  gone  to  much 
greater  depths  and  remained  under  for  several 
minutes.  Such  cases  are  rare  however  and 
occur  most  frequently  among  the  natives  of  the 
South  Sea  Islands,  who,  male  and  female,  are 
expert  divers  from  childhood  and  spend  much 
of  their  lives  in  the  water. 

Visitors  have  claimed  that  natives  of  the 
Tongarewa  Islands,  in  longitude  one  hundred 

186 


METHODS   OF  FISHING 

and  fifty-eight  degrees  W.  and  latitude  nine 
degrees  S.,  can  do  twenty  to  twenty-five  fathoms 
and  will  even  go  deeper  when  tempted  by  the 
sight  of  a  few  oysters  lying  in  a  hole  or  depres- 
sion near  by.  Going  below  twenty-five  fathoms 
results  almost  invariably  in  a  sort  of  paralysis. 
The  diver  comes  up  howling  and  incapable  of 
motion  and  unless  companions  at  once  seize 
and  rub  him  vigorously  with  salt  water  until 
circulation  is  restored,  a  process  lasting  some- 
times many  hours,  he  dives  no  more.  If 
restored  he  will  dive  again  next  day,  and  such 
is  their  recklessness  that  the  same  temptation 
would  lead  him  to  take  the  risk  again. 

Monsters  abound  in  these  waters.  Should 
the  diver  be  attacked  by  a  devil-fish,  shark,  or 
sword-fish,  he  does  not  use  a  knife,  as  blood 
would  attract  other  devils  of  the  sea  and 
becloud  the  water  to  his  own  confusion.  Instead 
he  seeks  to  avoid  his  enemy,  and  if  the  troubler 
is  a  sword-fish,  tries  to  find  shelter  among  the 
rocks.  If  the  fish  departs  quickly,  he  escapes; 
but  the  time  of  a  live  man  one  hundred  feet 
under  water  is  short  and  sometimes  the  sword- 
fish  over-stays  it. 

187 


THE  PEARL 

Helmets  have  been  used  to  a  certain  extent 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Many  of  them  were 
clumsy  affairs,  abhorred  by  all  native  divers, 
and  were  a  bad  introduction  to  the  "dress" 
used  in  the  large  operations  of  big  fisheries  such 
as  those  of  Australia  and  the  Pacific  coast  of 
this  continent.  In  the  seas  about  Australia, 
modern  appliances  are  being  rapidly  introduced. 
The  Australians  use  them  if  possible,  wherever 
they  fish.  On  their  own  coast  all  diving  is  now 
done  in  dress ;  but  among  some  of  the  islands  of 
the  Pacific,  where  they  are  extending  their 
interests,  native  prejudice  is  still  able  to  hinder 
the  use  of  it. 

Probably  the  chief  reason  for  the  general  use 
of  the  dress  on  the  Australian  coast  so  early 
was  that  the  shallows  were  soon  exhausted, 
and  naked  diving  was  not  successful  beyond  a 
depth  of  fifty  feet.  With  the  dress,  a  diver,  can 
work  at  much  greater  depths,  remain  under 
water  an  hour  or  two,  and  work  all  the  year 

round. 

In  fisheries  like  those  of  Ceylon,  where  the 
banks  are  seldom  over  forty  feet  deep  and  well 
known,  being  fished  over  and  over  again  at  one 

188 


METHODS   OF   FISHING 

season  of  the  year  only,  at  comparatively  short 
intervals  (four  to  six  years),  the  necessity  for 
dress-diving  is  less  and  the  naked  native  diver 
will  probably  survive  for  many  years  although 
modern  innovations  are  gradually  creeping  in 
even  among  the  fisheries  controlled  by  Orientals. 

The  dress  consists  of  a  rubber  suit  all  in  one 
piece,  which  the  diver  gets  into  through  the 
neck;  leaden-soled  boots,  corselet  to  which  the 
helmet  is  screwed,  and  chest  and  back  weights. 
The  diver  dresses  and  steps  on  to  the  ladder 
hanging  over  the  boat's  side.  The  air-pipe,  life- 
line, and  helmet  are  attached,  the  man  at  the 
air-pump  is  set  to  work,  and  last  of  all  the  face 
glass  is  screwed  up. 

A  plunge,  a  splash,  and  he  drops  swiftly 
through  the  heaving  billows  to  the  quiet  depths 
below,  his  life  in  the  hands  of  the  tender  he  has 
left  in  the  boat.  This  man  must  feel  the  diver 
constantly  by  the  life-line,  keep  him  supplied 
with  air  and  be  ready  for  any  of  the  emergen- 
cies always  liable  to  arise.  Only  an  alert  man 
of  good  judgment  and  quick  action  should  tend 
the  life-line,  though  the  most  successful  diver, 
a  Japanese,  on  the  Australian  coast  some  years 

189 


THE  PEARL 

ago,  had  the  best  tender  of  that  section  in  the 
person  of  his  wife. 

If  it  is  the  diver's  first  plunge,  his  ears  and 
head  will  be  racked  with  pain  as  he  descends. 
This  pain  will  leave  him  when  he  reaches 
bottom,  but  on  his  return  to  the  surface  he  will 
find  his  nose  and  ears  bleeding  and  will  probably 
spit  blood  also.  After  this  he  will  not  experience 
pain  in  diving,  but  in  common  with  nearly  all 
divers  will  never  be  quite  free  from  extreme 
irritability  and  bad  temper  while  below;  he 
will  also  have  gained  the  diver's  ability  to  blow 
smoke  through  the  ears. 

Diving  is  injurious  to  the  health  and,  if  per- 
sisted in,  produces  deafness  and  incipient 
paralysis.  Few  of  the  divers  on  the  Australian 
coast  now  are  aborigines.  Their  antipathy  to- 
the  dress  amounted  in  many  cases  to  a  supersti- 
tion, so  as  the  fishing  was  pushed  out  to  deeper 
waters  and  the  dress  became  a  necessity,  they 
were  discarded  with  the  old  methods.  It  is  said 
that  in  the  old  times  diving  had  a  peculiar  effect 
upon  the  black-haired  natives.  By  the  end  of 
the  fishing  season  the  color  of  their  hair  became 
yellow  though  the  natural  hue  returned  later. 

190 


METHODS   OF   FISHING 

With  the  dress,  a  diver  can  work  comfortably 
at  one  hundred  to  a  hundred  and  twenty-five 
feet,  but  men  who  know  the  fisheries  doubt  if 
that  can  be  exceeded.  Nor  does  it  seem  needful 
to  go  deeper,  for  in  seas  which  have  been 
explored  at  greater  depths  it  is  usually  found 
that  the  bottom  consists  of  ooze  unsuitable  for 
the  life  and  growth  of  the  oyster. 

Beyond  those  inherent  to  the  art  of  diving, 
either  method  has  its  peculiar  difficulties  after 
bottom  is  reached.  In  naked  diving,  especially 
at  the  shoals  of  Ceylon  and  Venezuela,  where 
the  shells  are  small  and  abundant,  it  is  simply 
a  question  of  gathering  as  many  as  possible 
while  the  breath  lasts  and  looking  out  for  the 
dangerous  fishes  indigenous  to  tropical  waters. 

Sharks  are  common  in  many  of  the  pearl- 
oyster  seas,  but  experienced  divers  do  not  fear 
them  greatly,  as  the  fish,  formidable  as  it  may 
appear,  and  dangerous  as  it  is  when  it  can  come 
upon  one  unawares,  is  easily  frightened.  Many 
expert  swimmers  of  the  Indian  and  Pacific 
oceans  do  not  hesitate  to  attack  them  in  their 
own  element.  Usually  vigorous  splashing  will 
frighten  them  away.  The  dress-divers  of 

191 


THE  PEARL 

Australia  scare  them  off  by  allowing  a  jet  of  air 
to  escape.  As  the  bubbles  start  for  him,  the 
man-eating  monster  shoots  away  from  them  as 
if  terror-stricken. 

The  diamond-flounder  of  the  Pacific  and 
Indian  oceans,  a  huge  flat  fish  with  a  habit  of 
seizing  its  prey  between  the  side  fins  and 
crushing  it,  is  more  dangerous.  If  a  dress- 
diver  of  experience  sees  one  of  these  approach- 
ing, he  is  apt  to  shut  off  the  air-escape  of  his 
helmet  and  signal  to  his  tender  that  he  is 
coming  to  the  surface  as  fast  as  he  can  get 
there. 

The  rock-cod  also  is  sometimes  troublesome 
on  the  Australian  coast.  Occasionally  he 
attains  an  enormous  size.  This  fish  lies  hidden 
in  submarine  caves,  his  head  protruding  and 
his  monstrous  jaws  yawning  vertically  wide 
like  an  entrance  to  the  cave  itself.  But  acci- 
dents from  the  denizens  of  the  sea  are  com- 
paratively few;  the  physical  results  of  deep- 
sea  diving  are  more  to  be  dreaded,  for  paralysis 
hovers  close  to  the  thirty-fathom  line. 

Although  dress-diving  has  the  advantage 
over  naked  diving  that  it  gives  a  supply  of  air 

192 


METHODS  OF  FISHING 

to  breathe  while  at  work,  it  also  entails  dangers 
and  difficulties  from  which  the  old  method  is 
free.  An  imperfect  supply  of  air  may  cause  the 
bursting  of  a  blood-vessel.  Fouling  of  the  lines 
might  not  only  cut  off  the  air  supply  entirely, 
but  prevent  the  man,  anchored  by  his  heavy 
dress  under  twenty  fathoms  of  water  more  or 
less,  from  signalling  the  man  at  the  life-line. 
As  on  dry  land,  there  are  holes  and  precipices 
at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  to  be  avoided. 

In  some  seas  there  are  swift  currents  and  as 
the  dress-diver  remains  under  water  for  some 
time,  instead  of  returning  at  once  like  his  naked 
brother,  he  must  keep  moving  with  it,  and  as 
he  moves,  the  boat  must  move  in  unison  and 
his  tender  must  keep  the  lines  free.  Both  diver 
and  tender  must  be  skilful  and  alert  to  do  this. 
Nor  is  it  always  easy  in  deep-sea  diving  to  find 
the  oysters.  They  lie  in  scattered  bunches, 
often  hidden  by  sponges,  coral  or  other  sea 
growths,  their  gray  or  moss-grown  exteriors 
scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the  surround- 
ings ;  if  in  mud,  only  an  inch  or  so  of  the  sharp 
lips  of  the  two  valves  projecting  above  the 
surface  are  in  evidence ;  while  if  in  stooping  to 
13  193 


THE  PEARL 

gather  the  shells  he  should  fall,  he  is  likely  to 
shoot  feet  foremost  to  the  surface. 

Though  dress-diving  has  heretofore  been  con- 
fined almost  entirely  to  white  men,  the  Japan- 
ese, Chinese,  Malays,  South  Sea  Islanders,  and 
others  in  different  places,  are  now  being  edu- 
cated to  it  chiefly  through  an  Australian 
fishery. 

At  the  northwestern  corner  of  Australia,  a 
thousand  miles  from  the  nearest  railroad  and 
ten  days  from  the  nearest  port,  there  are  pearl- 
fisheries  where  the  climate  is  so  hot  that  white 
men  cannot  be  obtained  for  the  work.  Colored 
men  are  shipped  there  from  Singapore  to  man 
the  boats,  the  pearl-fishers  giving  a  bond  to  the 
government  of  100  pounds  sterling  for  each  man 
employed,  as  a  guarantee  that  he  will  not  go 
to  other  parts  of  the  state.  A  fleet  of  about 
three  hundred  boats  and  fifteen  hundred  men 
are  employed  there,  the  supply  station  being  at 
Broome  township. 

In  all  things,  when  once  the  improvements  of 
science  gain  a  foothold  anywhere  in  the  world, 
the  whole  earth  succumbs  eventually  to  their 
advantages,  and  so  with  diving ;  the  habits  and 

194 


METHODS  OF   FISHING 

prejudices  of  thousands  of  years  will  be  forced 
by  commercial  pressure  to  submit  themselves 
to  modern  appliances,  and  the  picturesque 
nakedness  of  the  swarthy  orient  will  soon  be 
hidden  under  the  ugly  but  useful  dress  of 
civilization. 


195 


HABITAT  OF   THE   PEARL   OYSTER 


HABITAT  OF  THE  PEARL 
OYSTER 

The  Pearl  Oyster  is  found  in  more  or  less 
abundance  on  the  shoals  and  reefs  about  the 
shores  of  every  land  within  a  belt  of  the  earth 
lying  between  30  degrees  north  and  south  of 
the  equator.  Coral  reefs  and  limestone  founda- 
tions usually  form  the  beds  on  which  they 
propagate.  Beyond  these  limits  the  abalone  is 
found  at  Japan,  on  the  California  coast,  Queen 
Charlotte's  Island,  the  Cape,  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  China,  about  the  English  Channel, 
and  on  the  coast  of  France,  where  the  shores  are 
washed  by  equatorial  currents.  It  exists  also 
on  the  shores  of  India  and  the  Canary  Islands. 

The  largest  and  heaviest  shells,  which  yield 
fine  mother-of-pearl  most  abundantly  are  con- 
fined almost  entirely  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  within 
twenty  degrees  south  of  the  equator.  The  best 
white  shells  come  from  the  northern  shores  of 
Australia  and  the  Aroo  islands.  The  best  black 
shells  are  found  about  Tahiti,  the  Gambier 

199 


THE   PEARL 

Islands,  and  the  Tuamotu  Archipelago.  Of 
the  big  yellow  variety,  the  best  are  obtained  in 
the  Merguian  Archipelago  and  Dutch  Indies. 
The  shells  of  this  district  at  Ceram,  Bat j an, 
and  elsewhere,  vary  somewhat  but  the  bulk 
of  them  are  yellow. 

Beginning  with  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  the 
pearl  oyster  is  found  in  the  Red  Sea,  where  it 
has  been  fished  for  ages.  The  shell  here  is  of 
medium  size  and  weight ;  much  larger  than 
those  of  Venezuela,  Ceylon,  or  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  smaller  than  the  shells  of  the  Pacific. 
The  mother-of-pearl  is  not  of  the  finest  quality 
and  is  used  now  for  inferior  work  only.  It  was 
more  used  formerly  but  since  the  fresh-water 
unio  shell  of  the  United  States  came  into  the 
market,  it  has  displaced  to  a  great  degree  the 
Egyptian  and  Panama  shells.  The  inner  edge 
of  the  Red  Sea  shell  is  of  a  greenish  gray  color. 

South  of  the  Red  Sea,  on  the  East  of  the 
African  coast,  pearl  oysters  are  found  in  a 
number  of  places  between  Zanzibar  and  Inham- 
bane,  particularly  at  the  Bazaruto  Islands,  but 
nowhere  in  sufficient  abundance  to  develop  the 
fishing  for  them  into  a  regular  industry.  Good 

200 


HABITAT  OF  THE   PEARL  OYSTER 

mother-of-pearl  is  abundant  on  the  German  East 
African  coast,  but  the  oysters  carry  few  pearls. 

Travelling  east,  they  are  next  found  in  large 
numbers  in  that  arm  of  the  Arabian  Sea  known 
as  the  Persian  Gulf.  Here  they  have  existed 
for  many  centuries.  The  mollusk  is  of  the 
smaller  species  and  the  shells  are  known  in  the 
market  as  Lingahs,  from  the  name  of  the  centre 
of  the  pearl  trade  in  this  district.  The  shells 
are  of  no  commercial  importance. 

After  these  come  the  ancient  fisheries  of 
India,  the  most  prolific  in  the  world.  The 
oysters  here  are  smaller  than  those  of  the 
Arabian  Sea  and  the  shells  are  of  no  value,  but 
they  mature  rapidly  and  yield  great  quantities 
of  pearls.  Myriads  of  them  cover  the  shoals  and 
banks  between  the  coast  of  India,  at  the  South- 
eastern point,  and  Ceylon,  and  as  the  beds  are 
under  government  supervision,  they  cannot  be 
destroyed  by  the  reckless  fishing  of  immature 
oysters. 

Crossing  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  between  longitudes  100  and  120 
degrees  E.,  there  are  pearl  oysters  on  the  coasts 
of  China,  the  Merguian  Archipelago  and  western 

201 


THE  PEARL 

Australia.  Between  longitudes  120  degrees  E. 
and  150  degrees  E.,  these  mollusks  flourish  on 
many  coasts,  including  those  of  Japan,  the  Sulu 
Archipelago,  the  Dutch  Indies,  the  Spice 
Islands,  the  Banda  Islands,  the  Aroo  Islands, 
New  Guinea  and  northern  Australia. 

The  Australian  shells  are  large  and  the  lining 
is  white  and  fine.  As  shell  fisheries  they  are 
the  largest  in  the  world  and  although  the  value 
of  the  pearls  found  is  small  compared  with  the 
amount  realized  from  the  sale  of  the  shells  it  is 
considerable  and  growing.  The  Aroo  shells  are 
white  like  the  Australian.  Those  from  the 
Banda  Islands  are  a  smaller  black-edge  shell. 
Most  of  the  others  like  the  Manila  shell  of  the 
Sulu  Islands,  are  yellow. 

At  longitude  165  degrees  E.  the  fisheries  of 
New  Caledonia  are  becoming  notable  for  the 
number  of  fine  fancy  colored  pearls  found  there. 
Both  avicula  margaritifera  and  meleagrina 
margaritifera  are  taken  off  the  west  coast. 

In  the  waters  of  the  Fiji  Islands,  longitude 
1 80  degrees  E.  pearl  oysters  of  the  black  edge 
shell  variety  similar  to  the  Bandas  but  a  little 
larger  are  fairly  abundant. 

202 


HABITAT   OF  THE   PEARL   OYSTER 

Fine  shells,  often  containing  very  beautiful 
pearls,  are  taken  off  the  coasts  of  Tahiti, 
Gambier,  and  throughout  the  Tuamotu  Archi- 
pelago, lying  between  longitudes  130  degrees 
W.  and  150  degrees  W.  The  shells  are  of  the 
black-edge  type,  large  and  heavy.  The  nacre 
is  thick  and  has  a  particularly  mellow  luster; 
throughout  this  section  both  shells  and  pearls 
rank  among  the  best. 

All  over  the  South  Sea,  pearl  oysters  are 
found  about  the  islands  and  in  the  lagoons 
within  the  atolls  which  stud  it,  but  in  quantities 
too  small  in  many  places  to  induce  capital  to 
establish  fisheries.  Fishing  for  them  is  confined 
therefore  to  native  divers  who  are  rewarded  by 
the  occasional  find  of  a  few  pearls,  which  often 
they  sell  at  ridiculous  prices  to  the  stray  traders 
who  may  chance  to  come  their  way. 

This  eastward  journey  now  brings  us  to  the 
Pacific  coast  of  the  American  continent.  Here 
the  pearl-bearing  mollusk  is  found  on  the  shores 
of  Lower  California,  about  the  Islands  of  the 
Gulf  of  California,  at  various  points  on  the 
Mexican  coast-line  south  to  Acapulco  and  at 
Panama.  They  exist  also  on  the  coast  of 
203 


THE  PEARL 

Ecuador  but  of  late  years  fishing  has  not  proved 
remunerative  and  it  is  now  carried  on  in  a 
desultory  way  only.  They  are  found  also  on 
the  western  coast  of  Nicaragua. 

The  Mexican  shells  known  as  Panama  shell 
or  bullock  shell  have  a  dark,  dirty,  greenish  rim 
and  are  much  less  valuable  than  the  white  or 
black  shell.  Similarly,  dark,  slaty-colored 
pearls  are  known  as  Panamas  because  many 
pearls  taken  on  this  coast  are  of  that  character. 
This  color  tendency  however  often  results  more 
advantageously  as  many  of  the  pearls  are 
sufficiently  dark  to  be  classed  as  fancy  and  some 
beautiful  black  and  red  pearls  are  found  in 
these  waters.  Panama  pearls  also  have  the 
reputation  of  being  softer  than  others.  There 
are  pearl  oysters  also  on  the  Peruvian  coast  but 
this  section  has  not  yet  been  fished. 

On  the  Atlantic  side  of  America  pearl  oysters 
are  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  Campeche  and  on 
the  shoals  about  the  islands  and  shores  of 
Venezuela.  The  shells  of  Central  America  are 
similar  to  the  Panamas  only  more  yellow,  while 
those  of  Venezuela  are  small  and  valueless. 
Between  the  east  coast  of  America  and  the  Red 
204 


HABITAT  OF  THE   PEARL  OYSTER 

Sea  are  no  fisheries  save  at  Haiti,  for  no  dis- 
coveries of  any  importance  have  been  made  on 
the  western  coast  of  Africa. 

Consideration  of  these  homes  of  the  pearl 
oyster  shows  it  to  be  a  tropical  fish  and  that  it 
attains  greater  dimensions  in  the  Pacific  Ocean 
and  near  the  equator  than  elsewhere.  Beyond 
30  degrees  north  it  is  found  only  at  two  points, 
the  western  shore  of  America  and  on  the  Japan- 
ese coast.  These  shores  are  washed  by  equa- 
torial currents.  The  small  varieties  of  the 
Indian  seas  and  Venezuela,  mature  rapidly  in 
four  to  six  years,  and  if  not  taken  they  die  out 
after  the  seventh  year.  The  meleagrina  of  the 
Pacific  however,  though  it  attains  its  full  size 
in  six  to  eight  years,  continues  to  lay  on  shell- 
nacre  up  to  twelve  and  even  twenty  years. 
A  shell  which  is  of  good  size  but  comparatively 
thin  is  called  by  the  dealers  in  mother-of-pearl 
a  "young  shell."  The  Australian  pictured  at 
page  129  is  such  an  one.  The  Tuamotu  at 
page  127  is  not  full  grown  but  well  along  in 
years,  probably  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  old. 

Of  the  sea  mollusks  yielding  formations 
which,  though  not  true  pearls,  are  so  called, 

205 


THE   PEARL 

the  conch,  a  large  univalve  fountain-shell-fish 
(Strombus  gigas),  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies. 
Another,  a  gasteropod,  the  ear-shell  (Haliotis) 
known  in  the  United  States  as  the  abalone,  is 
found  on  the  coasts  of  California,  Japan,  the 
English  Channel  Islands  and  elsewhere.  The 
Calif ornians  are  divided  into  three  classes,  the 
blue  backs,  about  six  inches  long,  and  green  and 
red  ears,  which  are  half  as  large  again.  Pinnas 
yielding  black  seed  pearls  are  found  south  of 
the  Island  of  Mafia  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa. 
On  the  banks  and  shoals  between  Mafia  and 
Zanzibar  is  a  red  mussel  from  which  white 
pearls  are  taken. 

The  fresh-water  pearl-bearing  mussel,  the 
unio,  unlike  the  sea  oyster  is  most  abundant 
north  of  30  degrees  N.  In  China  and  the 
Hawaiian  Island  Oahu  it  is  found  a  little  to  the 
south  of  30  degrees  N.,  and  it  has  been  dis- 
covered lately  in  Southern  Rhodesia  a  little 
north  of  30  degrees  S.,  but  the  countries  and 
streams  in  which  the  unio  is  plentiful  and  where 
it  yields  the  most  pearls  lie  within  latitudes 
30  degrees  N.  and  60  degrees  N.  They  have 
been  taken  from  the  streams  of  Great  Britain 

206 


HABITAT  OF   THE   PEARL  OYSTER 

since  the  times  when  the  Romans  had  a  colony 
there.  They  exist  in  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Bavaria, 
Lapland,  Canada,  Labrador  and  in  great  quanti- 
ties in  the  United  States. 


207 


PEARL   FISHERIES 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

The  pearl  fisheries  of  the  Red  Sea  are  at 
Lohia.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  Red  Sea,  at 
Massawa  on  the  African  side,  and  at  Lohia  on 
the  Arabian  side,  are  a  number  of  small  barren 
islands ;  the  banks  lie  in  shallow  water  between 
them.  The  industry  is  financed  by  merchants, 
principally  natives  of  Bombay,  India,  who  in 
partnership  with  the  Bedouin  boat-owners, 
control  the  fishing.  The  Bedouin  captain  takes 
with  him  a  few  Arabs  to  man  the  boat  and  a 
number  of  black  slaves  as  divers.  The  shells 
have  a  market  value  for  mother-of-pearl  but 
the  quality  is  inferior.  They  have  a  greenish- 
gray  edge  and  are  fairly  heavy  and  formerly 
they  were  much  in  demand. 

Of  late  years  the  fresh- water  unio  shells  have 
replaced  them  to  a  certain  extent  for  cheap 
material  but  the  shells  are  yet  about  ninety 
per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  fishings.  Returns 
show  exports  of  pearls  averaging  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars  per  annum  but  as  a  large 

211 


THE   PEARL 

number  go  direct  to  Bombay  and  are  not 
reported,  this  does  not  fairly  represent  the 
extent  of  the  industry. 

The  beds  vary  in  depth,  thirty  to  forty  feet 
being  the  maximum  depth  fished.  Naked 
native  diving  is  the  rule,  but  the  Italian  govern- 
ment has  lately  farmed  out  concessions  at 
Dahlak  and  Farsan  where  they  are  experiment- 
ing with  helmets.  The  fishing  season  is  from 
the  beginning  of  March  to  the  end  of  May. 

The  arm  of  the  Arabian  sea  lying  between 
Arabia  and  Persia  known  as  the  Persian  Gulf, 
has  always  been  rich  in  pearl-oysters  and  is  a 
prolific  source  of  supply  to-day.  These  banks 
are  fished  chiefly  for  the  pearls.  The  shell, 
though  larger  than  the  Ceylon,  is  of  the 
"Lingah"  class  as  it  is  called,  and  is  of  little 
value  for  mother-of-pearl. 

Though  pearl-oysters  are  found  all  along  the 
coast  of  Arabia,  the  most  productive  shoals  are 
between  the  Islands  of  Halool  and  Katar. 
These  shoals  commence  at  the  Island  of  Bahrein 
immediately  off  the  Arab  coast  near  the  centre 
of  the  gulf  and  continue  east  and  south  along 
the  district  of  Katar  for  nearly  two  hundred 

212 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

miles  after  which  the  banks  are  lost  in  deep 
water.  The  chief  centre  of  the  pearl  trade  is 
Lingah,  hence  the  name  given  to  the  shells  of 
this  district.  Most  of  the  pearls  go  to  Bombay 
and  are  known  as  Bombay  pearls,  many  of 
them  having  a  distinctly  yellow  tint.  The 
whitest  and  finest  go  to  Bagdad  and  eventually 
the  best  go  to  Europe.  India  takes  the  irregular 
ones  and  China  gets  the  seed  pearls. 

The  principal  banks  are  at  Bahrein.  This 
island  is  the  most  important  one  of  a  group 
situated  in  an  indentation  of  the  Arabian  coast 
and  is  about  seventy  miles  long  and  twenty- 
five  broad. 

Small  boats  carrying  from  five  to  fifteen  men 
fish  the  shallows  near  the  coast,  but  larger  boats, 
manned  by  from  twenty  to  fifty  men,  put  out 
for  the  banks  further  from  shore  into  deep 
water.  These  remain  out  during  the  entire 
season  coming  into  port  once  or  twice  only  for 
supplies.  The  owners  of  the  boats  are  generally 
poor.  They  depend  upon  the  dealers  for 
advances  at  the  beginning  of  the  season  for 
supplies,  and  many  of  them  are  therefore 
practically  in  a  state  of  bondage. 

213 


THE   PEARL 

When  the  deep-water  boats  reach  the  fishing 
grounds,  half  the  crew  is  selected  for  diving. 
The  diver  uses  a  small  braided  mat  basket  as  a 
receptacle  for  the  shells  and  has  a  long  line 
attached  to  him  by  which  he  can  signal  to  the 
man  in  the  boat  who  manages  it.  There  is  a 
man  to  each  diver's  line.  Except  for  the  short 
intervals  at  the  surface  necessary  for  air  and 
rest,  the  divers  remain  in  the  water  for  hours. 
The  oyster  beds  vary  in  depth  from  six  to 
eighteen  feet  in  the  shallows,  to  forty  feet  at 
the  banks. 

The  duration  of  the  fishing  season  depends 
on  the  temperature  of  the  water.  It  lasts 
usually  through  July,  August,  and  September, 
though  some  of  the  larger  boats  remain  out 
from  the  end  of  June  until  the  beginning  of 
October. 

The  pearls  are  sold  by  weight,  sales  being 
made  sometimes  while  at  sea  and  a  duty 
equalling  about  twenty  per  cent,  is  levied  on  the 
spot.  A  large  number  of  Hindu  traders  come 
during  the  season  to  buy,  returning  to  India 
at  the  close  as  they  have  done  for  centuries. 

No  exact  statistics  of  the  output  of  these 
214 


PEARL   FISHERIES 

fisheries  are  to  be  had  but  the  yield  is  said  to 
average  well;  some  authorities  placing  the 
value  of  the  fisheries  of  the  entire  district  in 
the  sixties  at  nearly  two  millions  of  dollars  per 
annum,  and  the  number  of  boats  engaged  at 
4,000  to  5,000. 

As  ancient  as  those  of  the  Arabian  sea  and 
even  more  important  are  the  pearl  fisheries  of 
India.  These  are  also  fished  for  the  pearls,  the 
shells  of  these  waters  being  smaller  than  those 
of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  valueless  for  mother-of- 
pearl.  The  pearls  however  average  whiter  than 
those  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Although  equally  fine  pearls  are  found  in  other 
waters  the  Ceylon,  or  Madras  pearls  as  they 
are  called,  have  long  been  esteemed  the  best 
because  of  their  good  average  color  and  quality. 
These  banks  are  situated  in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar 
between  the  southern  point  of  India  and  the 
island  of  Ceylon. 

On  the  Madras  (India)  side  the  banks  are  off 
Tinnevalli  and  Madura  at  Tuticorin.  The 
Indian  revenue  realized  a  profit  of  £13,000 
from  a  fishing  here  in  1822,  and  £10,000 
from  another  in  1830.  Examinations  showed 

215 


THE   PEARL 

that  there  were  not  sufficient  oysters  for  profit- 
able fishing  after  that  until  1860,  when  the 
government  netted  £20,000,  and  a  fishing  the 
following  year,  1861,  was  equally  successful. 
The  banks  failed  in  1862  and  there  was  no 
fishery  until  1874.  Pollution  of  the  water  from 
the  Indian  shores  has  been  detrimental  to  these 
banks  and  they  are  now  of  little  importance. 

On  the  Ceylon  side,  the  banks  lie  six  to  eight 
miles  off  the  west  shore  and  a  little  south  of  the 
island  of  Manaar.  Fishing  has  been  an  industry 
from  early  times  before  history  began.  There 
are  records  of  these  fisheries  under  the  kings 
of  Kandy  and  later  by  the  Portuguese  after 
they  took  possession  of  Ceylon  about  1505,  to 
1655  when  the  island  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  Dutch.  In  old  times  they  were  called  the 
fisheries  of  Aripo  after  a  fort  on  the  coast.  Not 
until  the  English  gained  control  were  the 
fisheries  so  managed  that  definite  knowledge  of 
the  results  could  be  obtained. 

After  the  Dutch  gave  way  to  the  English, 

until   1903,  these  fisheries  had  yielded  a  net 

income  to  the  government  of  over  £1,000,000. 

This  covered  a  period  of  over  one  hundred 

216 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

years,  as  the  British  occupied  Ceylon  in  1796. 
In  the  early  years  of  this  period  and  prior  to 
that,  the  fishings,  or  rights  to  fish,  were  sold  to 
the  highest  bidders,  usually  Hindu  merchants. 
In  1796  the  fishing  brought  £60,000.  The 
year  after  the  British  took  possession,  1797,  it 
realized  £110,000  that  amount  having  been 
paid  by  Candappa  Chetty,  a  native  of  Jaffna 
for  the  fishery  right,  and  for  that  of  1798,  the 
same  renter  paid  £140,000. 

These  fishings,  which  were  prolonged,  so 
exhausted  the  banks  that  the  fishery  of  1799 
yielded  but  £30,000.  From  1799  to  1802  the 
yearly  product  ranged  from  £12,000  to  £55,000. 
In  1804  they  were  leased  for  £120,000  but 
from  that  time  on  declined  so  that  in  1828 
they  brought  only  £30,612.  There  were  no 
fishings  from  1820  to  1827,  nor  in  1834  and 
after  1837,  until  1855.  The  supply  failed  in 
1864  and  for  several  succeeding  years,  and  again 
for  a  decade,  after  five  successful  fishings  from 
1887  to  1891.  The  average  yearly  profit  up  to 
1891  was  about  £34,000. 

The  Ceylon  and  Madras  fisheries  are  now  in 
charge  of  a  government  officer,  who  spends  a 

217 


THE   PEARL 

part  of  each  year  inspecting  the  various  banks 
so  as  to  be  informed  as  to  the  whereabouts  of 
mature  oysters,  and  the  location  and  progress 
of  the  young  and  immature.  They  keep  a 
record  of  their  condition  at  different  periods, 
and  regulate  the  fisheries  by  permitting  fishing 
only  when  they  consider  the  banks  to  be  ripe 
for  it. 

The  oysters  mature  in  from  four  to  six  years 
so  that  ordinarily  a  bank  may  be  fished  once  in 
that  period,  but  it  sometimes  happens  that  the 
young  oysters  are  swept  away  by  violent  storms 
or  crowded  out  by  natural  enemies.  In  1901 
the  Ceylon  banks  were  found  to  be  in  a  bad  way, 
there  were  plenty  of  young  oysters  but  none 
full-grown.  The  government  officers  could  not 
account  for  the  condition,  and  in  response  to  a 
report  of  the  facts  the  government  sent  Prof. 
W.  A.  Herdman  to  Ceylon  in  1902.  He  exam- 
ined the  whole  of  the  bottom  of  the  Gulf  of 
Manaar  and  discovered  banks  on  which  were 
full-grown  oysters,  so  that  a  fishing  was  fixed 
for  the  23rd  of  February  1903.  Weather  pre- 
vented commencement  until  the  second  of 
March,  when  fishing  began  and  lasted  forty- 

218 


PEARL   FISHERIES 

two  working  days  until  April  the  fourteenth. 
The  fishings  take  place  in  March  and  April 
because  the  sea  is  usually  calm  at  that  period. 

The  banks  lie  in  five  to  ten  fathoms  over  a 
shallow  area  nearly  fifty  miles  long  by  twenty 
miles  broad,  opposite  Aripo.  A  steep  declivity 
on  the  western  edge  gives  the  sea  a  depth  of  one 
hundred  fathoms  in  a  few  miles.  In  the  centre 
of  the  southern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar, 
west  of  the  Chilaw  pearl-banks,  the  sea  is  one 
to  two  thousand  fathoms  deep. 

Of  all  the  paars,  or  oyster  beds  (paar  means 
rock  or  hard  bottom)  the  Periya  paar  is  the 
largest.  It  is  about  eleven  nautical  miles  long 
and  from  one  to  two  miles  broad.  Situated  in 
about  five  to  ten  fathoms  close  to  the  top  of 
the  western  slope  of  the  shallows,  and  running 
north  and  south  about  twenty  miles  from  land, 
it  is  exposed  to  the  southwest  monsoon  which 
runs  up  toward  the  Bay  of  Bengal  for  about 
six  months  of  the  year.  The  natives  call  this 
the  mother-paar,  believing  that  the  young 
oysters  are  carried  from  it  to  the  other  paars, 
which  are  thus  stocked  at  its  expense. 

Between  1880  and  1902  twenty-one  examina- 
219 


THE   PEARL 

tions  showed  that  the  Periya  paar  had  been 
naturally  stocked  eleven  times  with  enormous 
quantities  of  young  oysters,  which  as  regularly 
disappeared  before  they  were  old  enough  to 
yield  a  fishing.  The  most  reliable  paars  are  in 
the  Cheval  district  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
government,  acting  on  the  suggestion  of  Prof. 
Herdman,  will  hereafter  dredge  the  breeding 
Periya  paar  of  its  young  oysters  and  plant  them 
where  they  will  be  able  to  mature.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  many  millions  of  millions  of  oysters 
have  been  lost  from  this  paar  during  the  last 
twenty-five  years. 

A  fishing  is  not  only  a  matter  of  commercial 
importance,  but  of  wide-spread  interest  among 
the  natives  of  Ceylon  and  India.  The  romance 
of  the  situation,  the  hope  of  gain,  the  great 
gathering  of  people  from  many  and  far-off 
countries,  the  opportunities  for  barter,  the 
possibilities  of  securing  priceless  gems  for  little, 
and  for  making  money  quickly,  all  appeal  to 
the  oriental  mind. 

For  this  they  will  endure  the  discomforts  of 
long  and  painful  journeys  and  the  dangers  of 
crowded  camp  life  with  a  recklessness  that  con- 

220 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

trasts  curiously  with  the  wild  panics  into  which 
they  are  sometimes  thrown,  as  for  instance  in 
1889,  when  the  Ceylon  fishing  collapsed  on 
account  of  cholera.  In  a  few  hours  a  fleet  of 
200  boats  disappeared,  the  camp  was  burned, 
and  the  multitude  gone. 

Great  precautions  are  taken  by  the  govern- 
ment officials  in  every  direction.  When  they 
have  decided  that  there  are  banks  in  condition 
to  be  fished,  notice  of  a  fishing  is  advertised. 
The  following  notification  of  the  fishery  for 
1904  is  an  illustration. 

"  Government  Notification. 

Pearl  fishery  of  1904. 

Notice  is  hereby  given  that  a  pearl  fishery 
will  take  place  at  Marichchikaddi,  in  the  Island 
of  Ceylon,  on  or  about  March  14,  1904. 

1.  The  bank  to  be  fished  is  the  southwest 
Cheval    Paar   which   is    estimated   to    contain 
13,000,000  oysters. 

2.  It  is  notified  that  the  first  day's  fishing 
will  take  place  on  the  first  favorable  day  after 
March  13. 

3.  Marichchikaddi  is  on  the  main  land,  eight 
miles  by  sea  south  of  Sillavaturai  and  supplies 

221 


THE  PEARL 

of  good  water  and  provisions  can  be  obtained 
there. 

4.  The  fishery  will  be  conducted  on  account 
of  the  Government,  and  the  oysters  put  up  for 
sale  in  such  lots  as  may  be  deemed  expedient. 

5.  The  arrangements  of  the  fishery  will  be 
the  same  as  have  been  usual  on  similar  occa- 
sions.   Persons  attending  the  fishery  camp  from 
India  will  be  permitted  to  travel  to  Ceylon  by 
either  of  the  following  routes:     (i)  Tuticorin 
to  Colombo  or  (2)  Paumben  to  Marichchikaddi 
and  by  no  other.    Arrangements  will  be  made 
as  at  the  last  fishery,  for  travellers  to  proceed 
from  Paumben  direct  to  the  camp.     The  only 
restriction  imposed  on  travellers  by  the  Paum- 
ben route  will  be  inspection  by  the  medical 
officers  at  Paumben. 

6.  All  payments  to  be  made  in  ready  money 
in  Ceylon  currency. 

7.  Drafts  on  the  banks  in  Colombo  or  bills 
on  the  agents  of  this  Government  in  India,  at 
ten  days  sight,  will  be  taken  on  letters  of  credit 
produced  to  warrant  the  drawing  of  such  drafts 
or  bills. 

8.  For  the  convenience  of  purchasers,   the 

222 


PEARL   FISHERIES 

treasurer  at  Colombo  and  the  different  Govern- 
ment agents  of  provinces  will  be  authorized 
to  receive  cash  deposits  from  parties  intending 
to  become  purchasers,  and  receipts  of  these 
officers  will  be  taken  in  payment  of  any  sums 
due  on  account  of  the  fishery. 

9.  No  deposit  will  be  received  for  a  less  sum 
than  Rs.  250. 

By  His  Excellency's  command. 

Everard  Im  Thurm,  Colonial  Secretary. 
Colonial  Secretary's  Office,  Colombo,  Feb.  27, 

1904." 

The  sanitary  precautions  are  of  the  utmost 
importance,  for  a  plague  stricken  Hindu,  if  he 
were  dying,  would  still  endeavor  to  go  where  he 
might  "get  rich  quickly." 

As  the  time  draws  near,  thousands  of  specu- 
lators and  sightseers  from  farther  and  nearer 
India  arrive.  Berbers,  Arabs,  Persians,  and 
Burmese,  mingle  with  the  Singhalese  and  Tamil 
divers.  A  town  of  huts  to  accommodate  per- 
haps 50,000  springs  into  existence.  Steamer 
service  to  Colombo  is  started,  post  and  telegraph 
service  is  established  and  sanitary  measures  put 
in  force.  Conjurors  employed  by  the  divers  go 
223 


THE   PEARL 

through  incantations  to  preserve  them  from  the 
sharks  which  abound  in  these  waters. 

This  shark-charming  power  is  believed  to  be 
hereditary  and  not  dependent  on  the  religion 
of  the  conjuror  and  he  can,  if  ill  or  absent,  con- 
vey the  power  to  a  substitute  so  that  it  will  be 
respected  by  the  sharks.  To  make  matters 
doubly  sure  the  divers  arm  themselves  with  a 
short,  pointed  piece  of  ironwood.  This  how- 
ever is  not  their  main  reliance  for  a  "wise 
woman"  was  able  to  avert  a  panic  which  was 
well  under  way,  after  one  of  the  divers  was 
bitten  at  the  Tuticorin  fishing  of  1890.  Except- 
ing the  loss  of  a  limb  occasionally  not  much 
damage  is  done  by  the  sharks,  a  fact  which 
sustains  the  implicit  faith  of  the  natives  in  their 
shark-charmers . 

When  the  day  set  by  the  Government  officials 
arrives,  the  fleet  puts  to  sea  after  numerous 
ceremonies.  The  boats,  which  range  from  ten 
to  fifteen  tons,  are  grouped  in  fleets  of  sixty 
to  seventy.  Beside  the  divers  they  are  manned 
by  ten  or  more  sailors,  a  steersman,  and  if 
possible  by  a  shark-charmer  (pillal  karras). 
The  boats  leave  at  midnight  in  order  to  be 

224 


PEARL   FISHERIES 

ready  on  the  banks  at  sunrise.  At  the  firing  of 
a  signal  gun  diving  commences.  A  stone  of 
granite,  shaped  like  a  pyramid  and  weighing 
about  thirty  to  forty  pounds,  is  attached 
through  a  hole  at  the  smaller  end  to  the  cord 
by  which  the  diver  is  lowered.  Some  divers 
prefer  a  half-moon  stone  fastened  to  the  waist. 
Above  the  stone  when  attached  to  the  line  is  a 
loop  for  the  diver's  foot.  The  divers  work  in 
pairs,  one  going  down  and  the  other  remaining 
in  the  boat  to  attend  to  the  line,  and  in  some 
cases  exchanging  positions  as  the  diver  becomes 
exhausted.  Naked  divers  stay  below  fifty  to 
eighty  seconds  on  an  average,  though  some  can 
remain  under  water  longer.  Each  man  makes 
forty  to  fifty  descents  a  day  and  brings  up  fifteen 
to  thirty  oysters  each  time.  As  a  rule  the 
maximum  depth  in  these  waters  is  about  forty- 
two  feet  though  fishing  at  twelve  and  thirteen 
fathoms  is  reported.  The  divers  work  from 
sunrise  to  noon,  which  allowing  for  shifts  gives 
each  man  four  hours  diving  for  a  day's  work. 
A  gun  is  fired  as  a  signal  for  the  day's  fishing  to 
cease  and  the  fleet  starts  at  once  for  shore. 
Upon  arriving  there  the  oysters  are  immediately 
15  225 


THE   PEARL 

landed  by  coolies  who  carry  them  in  baskets, 
on  their  backs,  to  the  "Kottu,"  or  government 
stockade.  There  they  are  counted  and  each 
boat-load  is  divided  into  three  equal  parts; 
Two  of  these  are  chosen  by  officials  for  the 
government  and  the  remaining  heap  is  the 
boats'  share.  Formerly  the  catch  was  divided 
into  four  parts  of  which  the  government  took 
three.  Of  the  boats'  share  the  divers  get  in 
some  cases  two  thirds.  As  soon  as  the  division 
is  made,  those  belonging  to  the  boat  are  quickly 
traded  or  sold  to  the  numerous  small  speculators 
which  abound  in  the  camp.  Six  evenings  in 
the  week  the  government  auctions  off  the 
catch  in  lots  of  one  thousand. 

While  each  day's  catch  is  being  counted  the 
average  run  is  carefully  watched  by  experts 
who  judge  by  the  size,  weight  and  general 
appearance  of  the  oysters  as  to  the  probable 
yield  of  pearls.  Opinions  so  formed  are  usually 
quite  correct  and  bidding  at  the  auctions  are 
based  on  them  to  a  great  extent.  The  principal 
buyers  are  from  Madras,  Bombay,  and  other 
cities  on  the  Coromandel  and  Malabar  coasts 
of  India,  though  local  speculators  buy  many. 

226 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

The  catch  runs  about  one  million  per  day. 
In  1903  forty-four  million  oysters  were  taken, 
but  they  realized  much  less  than  the  catch  of 
1904,  when  the  number  was  not  quite  twenty- 
six  and  three-quarter  millions,  though  it  netted 
the  government  $350,000;  1905,  however,  will 
be  the  record  year  as  it  is  claimed  the  profits 
will  reach  the  large  sum  of  $830,000.  These 
figures  represent  the  government's  share  only. 

The  price  realized  at  these  sales  varies  not 
only  with  the  season  but  from  day  to  day.  Ten 
to  fourteen  dollars  per  thousand  is  a  fair  average, 
though  there  are  days  when  as  much  as  twenty- 
four  dollars  is  realized.  Prices  have  ranged 
from  $7.50  to  $40.00  per  thousand  in  one  season. 
The  net  proceeds  go  to  the  revenue  of  Ceylon. 

This  has  been  the  system  under  which  the 
Ceylon  fisheries  were  managed  until  lately. 
For  some  reason  unknown  to  the  public,  the 
government,  after  a  season  of  unequalled  profit 
in  1905,  leased  the  fisheries  to  a  company,  the 
Pearl  Fishers  of  Ceylon  (Limited),  for  a  period 
of  twenty  years  from  January  i,  1906.  The 
company  is  to  pay  the  government  $103,333 
per  annum  and  is  to  expend  annually  upon  the 
227 


THE   PEARL 

improvement  of  the  fishery  not  less  than 
$16,666,  or  more  than  $50,000,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  government.  The  expenses  of  super- 
vision and  protection  by  the  government  must 
also  be  borne  by  the  company. 

As  a  result  of  the  first  fishery  (1906),  the 
company  after  setting  aside  $49,628  for  depre- 
ciations and  reserve  and  carrying  forward 
$77,382,  show  a  profit  of  $256,960  which  affords 
dividends  of  36  cents  on  ordinary  shares  and 
1 8  cents  on  deferred  shares,  a  remarkably  good 
beginning.  The  government  revenue  from  the 
fishery  of  1905  was  $801,882  after  the  expenses, 
$73>5 10  were  deducted;  over  $111,000  more 
than  the  profit  of  1904  which  was  the  most  suc- 
cessful up  to  that  time. 

The  inspector  of  pearl-banks  anticipated  a 
good  fishery  in  1906  but  was  of  the  opinion  that 
after  a  small  fishery  in  1907  and  probably  1908 
the  banks  would  fail  for  some  years  as  they  have 
done  in  the  past. 

After  the  pearls  are  taken  from  the  dead 

oysters  they  are  first  sorted  for  size.     This  is 

done  by  passing  them  through  a  series  of  ten 

small  brass  sieves  known  as  baskets,  containing 

228 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

from  twenty  to  one  thousand  holes.  The 
sieves  have  twenty,  thirty,  fifty,  eighty,  one 
hundred,  two  hundred,  four  hundred,  six 
hundred,  eight  hundred  and  one  thousand 
holes  respectively.  The  pearls  are  then  sorted 
for  color  and  quality,  weighed  and  valued.  As 
with  all  things,  really  fine  pieces  are  rare,  the 
great  mass  being  ordinary  or  poor.  Herein  lies 
the  attraction  and  excitement  of  the  business 
for  some  will  find  great  gems.  One  may  imagine 
the  keen  interest  of  the  swarthy  buyer  who  has 
parted  with  his  hoards,  hoping  to  find  a  "pearl 
of  great  price"  when  he  washes  the  lustrous 
spheres  from  the  putrid  mass  of  decaying  fish: 
the  eager  search;  the  joy  when  his  eye  lights 
upon  a  big,  white,  shining  sphere  rising  up 
among  the  heap  of  little  ones;  the  growing 
exultation  as  he  picks  it  out  and  with  feverish 
interest  rolls  it  about  between  his  fingers  to  find 
it  without  flaw  or  blemish,  or  the  keen  disap- 
pointment should  his  inspection  show,  as  it 
most  frequently  does,  that  it  is  full  of  imper- 
fections. 

Hovering  about  are  the  buyers  for  the  great 
Hindu  merchants,  agents  of  far-off  princes  and 
229 


THE   PEARL 

Europeans,  all  watching  sharply  for  great  finds 
and  ready  to  enter  into  the  combat  of  wits  which 
marks  an  oriental  trading. 

If  one  remembers  that  there  are  probably 
twenty-five  thousand  traders  congregated  on 
the  hot  sands  of  this  far-off  shore,  the  fair  dame, 
whose  neck  is  clasped  by  a  string  of  these 
precious  globules,  may  conjure  from  their 
lustrous  skins,  scenes  as  wild  and  weird  as  any 
fairy  tale  that  set  her  youth  to  dreaming. 

The  pearls  are  sorted  into  a  number  of 
grades.  Those  perfect  in  sphericity  and  luster 
are  called  * '  ani. ' '  Anitari  meaning  * c  followers ' ' 
or  " companions,"  are  of  the  same  general 
character,  but  poorer  in  those  important 
qualities.  Masanku  are  somewhat  irregular  in 
shape  and  faulty,  especially  in  luster  and  color. 
The  poorest  of  this  class,  lacking  the  essential 
qualities,  are  separated  into  another  grade  and 
called  "kallipu."  Next  come  "kural,"  double 
or  twinned,  and  "pisal,"  are  misshapen  or 
clustered.  Folded  or  bent  pearls  are ' '  madanku, ' ' 
and  what  we  would  call  ''rejection,"  a  mixed 
lot  of  all  sorts  and  sizes  too  poor  to  include  in 
any  of  the  regular  classifications,  are  termed 
230 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

* '  vadivu. ' '  Seed-pearls,  the  very  small  pearls  of 
which  there  are  great  quantities,  are  known  as 
"  tul. "  Many  of  these  are  ground  to  ' '  chunam ' ' 
or  shell-lime,  and  used  as  an  ingredient  in  a 
favorite  masticatory. 

The  assortments  being  made,  they  are 
weighed  and  recorded  in  kalanchu  (kalungy) 
and  manchadi  (manjaday).  The  kalanchu  is  a 
brass  weight  equal  to  67  grains  troy,  and  the 
manchadi  is  a  small  red  berry  that  is  of  very 
even  weight  when  full  sized,  and  is  reckoned 
twenty  to  a  kalanchu. 

In  the  valuation  of  ani,  anitari  and  vadivu, 
the  individual  size,  form,  and  color  is  considered, 
but  the  others  are  simply  valued  by  weight. 

The  modus  operandi  of  these  fisheries  like 
all  others  managed  by  Orientals  continues  much 
the  same  from  fishing  to  fishing.  Experiments 
have  been  made  at  the  Tuticorin  fishery  with 
helmeted  divers  but  their  catch  compared 
unfavorably  with  that  of  the  naked  natives, 
who  will  sometimes  under  favorable  circum- 
stances bring  up  two  thousand  in  a  day.  It 
is  said  that  the  X-ray  is  being  used  to  some 
extent  in  the  examination  of  shells  and  that 

231 


THE   PEARL 

those  found  to  be  without  pearls  are  thrown 
back  into  the  sea,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  the  general 
use  would  be  practical  or  advantageous  while 
oysters  remain  abundant;  so  far,  the  use  of  it 
has  been  experimental  only. 

Fine  pearls  are  found  in  Dutch  India  among 
the  Molucca  Islands.  Fishing  is  done  by  the 
natives,  and  as  they  seldom  go  deeper  than  ten 
or  twelve  feet  the  probability  is  that  they  do 
not  get  the  finest  shells  or  pearls,  for  it  seems  to 
be  quite  well  established  that  the  shells  taken 
from  deep  water  are  larger  and  more  likely  to 
contain  large  pearls.  Whether  this  arises  from 
deep  water  being  more  favorable  to  growth, 
or  an  unmolested  opportunity  to  grow,  has  not 
been  determined. 

Hitherto  the  Netherlands  Indian  government 
has  opposed  encroachment  upon  the  rights  of 
the  natives  and  colonists,  and  has  patrolled 
the  waters  with  small  gunboats  to  prevent  any 
attempt  by  Europeans  to  fish.  But  lately  con- 
cessions have  been  made  to  British  firms  so  that 
shell  is  being  shipped  direct  to  London,  and 
it  is  now  thought  that  these  fisheries  will 
soon  rival  the  Australian.  The  pearls  were 
232 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

formerly  bought  from  natives,  principally  of 
the  Island  of  Aroe,  by  Chinese  and  Arabs 
who  took  them  to  Macassar.  From  there  they 
were  sent  first  to  Singapore  and  then  to  London, 
Paris,  and  Amsterdam.  Most  of  the  pearls 
brought  to  Macassar  are  baroques,  though  fine 
specimens  of  more  regular  shape  arrive  there 
occasionally.  The  mother-of-pearl  from  these 
shells  is  of  good  quality. 

Some  pearls  are  found  at  the  Bazaruto 
Islands,  Portuguese  East  Africa,  a  few  miles 
from  the  coast,  midway  between  Inhambane 
and  Beira.  A  concession  was  granted  to  a  com- 
pany about  1892,  but  bad  management,  lack 
of  funds  and  political  difficulties,  killed  the 
enterprise. 

General  reports  indicate  that  it  is  very 
difficult  for  any  enterprise  subject  to  the  offi- 
cials of  this  district  to  succeed.  The  Bazaruto 
Kaffirs  still  fish,  but  without  system  or  intel- 
ligence. They  are  wasteful  and  damage  many 
of  the  pearls  by  cooking  the  oyster.  The 
few  found  are  shipped  by  Indian  traders  to 
Bombay  and  Zanzibar. 

Pearl  fishing  has  been  attempted  on  the 
233 


THE  PEARL 

coast  of  German  East  Africa  at  Zanzibar  Island 
and  south,  between  the  Island  of  Mafia  and  the 
main  coast.  Mother-of-pearl  is  abundant  but 
few  pearls  have  been  found  and  there  has  been 
no  sustained  effort.  There  are  large  coral 
banks  about  the  islands  of  the  coast  favorable 
for  the  growth  of  mother-of-pearl  and  there  is 
shallow  water  over  large  areas. 

Good  white  pearls  have  been  taken  from  a 
red  mussel  found  there.  South  of  the  Island  of 
Mafia  are  beds  of  large  pinna  shells  which  yield 
black  seed-pearls.  There  are  pearl-shell  fisheries 
in  the  Merguian  Archipelago  and  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Burmah  and  some  pearls  are  found. 
The  banks,  scattered  over  an  area  of  eleven 
thousand  square  miles,  are  rented  from  the 
government  and  rights  to  fish  are  sublet  on 
royalty.  The  fishing  is  nearly  all  done  by 
helmeted  divers. 

Avicula  and  meleagrina  margaritifera  are 
taken  off  the  west  coast  of  New  Caledonia. 
From  the  former  large  numbers  of  pearls  are 
taken,  and  from  the  latter,  very  beautiful  white 
pearls.  Fine  colored  pearls  pink,  yellow,  gray 
and  black  are  often  found  in  this  district.  A 

234 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

variety  of  oyster  commonly  called  shoulder  of 
mutton,  and  another  shell-fish  called  jamboneau 
(pinna)  of  which  the  pearl  is  very  fine,  are  also 
found  in  these  waters. 

A  syndicate  was  formed  in  Paris  to  exploit 
these  beds  and  obtained  concessions  covering 
one  hundred  and  thirty  miles.  Owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  getting  divers,  the  waters  had  not 
been  exploited  to  any  great  depth  up  to  1898, 
the  regular  fishings  being  confined  to  the  shal- 
lows of  six  to  seven  feet,  though  larger  shells 
were  known  to  be  in  deeper  water.  More 
systematic  work  with  modern  appliances  and 
in  deeper  waters  has  since  been  done  with  good 
success,  but  late  reports  show  an  accumulation 
of  shell  and  indications  that  the  industry  has 
not  been  profitable. 

In  1904  the  price  of  shell  (black-edge  mother- 
of-pearl)  fell  to  $250,  U.  S.  gold  per  ton  of 
2240  pounds,  from  $700,  the  former  price,  with 
six  hundred  tons  stored  in  London,  Paris,  Berlin, 
New  York  and  San  Francisco,  making  a  pros- 
pective loss  of  $270,000  for  1904.  There  was  an 
attempt  to  limit  the  production  by  a  return  to 
native  diving.  With  dress  the  output  would  be 

235 


THE   PEARL 

about  500  tons  for  the  year,  with  naked-diving 
200  tons  less.  This  would  operate  against  the 
local  government,  as  it  not  only  levies  $38.60 
U.  S.  gold  per  metric  ton  as  an  export  duty,  but 
makes  a  large  profit  on  the  diving  machines 
by  way  of  license.  The  pearl  fisheries  of  French 
Oceanica  therefore  face  a  grave  situation. 

Pearls  are  found  occasionally  on  the  western 
coast  of  Nicaragua  at  San  Juan  del  Norte.  The 
Panama  coast  still  yields  great  quantities  of 
pearls  as  it  has  done  for  many  years.  When 
Spain  controlled  the  northwestern  section  of 
South  America  with  the  Isthmus  to  the  borders 
of  Guatemala,  under  the  name  of  Colombia, 
immense  quantities  of  pearls  were  sent  home  by 
the  colonists. 

It  is  recorded  that  697  pounds  of  pearls  were 
imported  into  Seville  from  Colombia  in  1587. 
A  large  proportion  of  these  undoubtedly  came 
from  the  coasts  of  what  is  now  Venezuela.  The 
Panama  or  bullock  shell  as  it  is  called,  is  not  of 
the  finest  quality  and  the  pearls  are  apt  to  be 
dark  and  inferior  to  the  Indian  pearls  in  luster 
as  well  as  in  color;  nevertheless  fine  pearls  are 
found  there  and  the  fisheries  yield  a  greater 

236 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

average  of  black  pearls  than  any  other.  Beauti- 
ful iridescent  pearls  are  also  found  there. 

The  Pearl  islands  are  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Bay  of  Panama  about  forty  miles  from  the  city. 
The  banks  there  may  only  be  fished  by  divers 
but  between  Chiriqui  and  Veragua  dredging  is 
allowed.  Since  the  United  States  government 
has  become  interested  in  this  section  there  is  a 
tendency  here  to  exploit  the  Panama  coasts 
and  companies  have  been  formed  in  the  States 
for  that  purpose.  The  pearl  fisheries  formerly 
carried  on  along  the  coast  of  Ecuador  about  two 
hundred  miles  north  of  Guayaquil,  are  no  longer 
operated. 

On  the  Atlantic  coast  of  South  America  the 
most  fruitful  pearl-banks  lie  along  the  coast  of 
Venezuela  and  west  to  Rio  Hacha  on  the 
Colombian  coast.  This  was  the  first  part  of  the 
American  mainland  sighted  by  Columbus  and 
the  quantities  of  pearls  owned  by  the  natives 
did  much  to  draw  the  tide  of  adventurers  which 
set  this  way  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  oysters  are  taken  from  reefs  and  bars 
about  one  mile  from  shore  and  about  the 
islands.  The  principal  beds  are  at  El  Tirano, 

237 


THE   PEARL 

northeast,  and  Macanao,  northwest  of  the 
island  of  Margarita.  There  are  fisheries  also  at 
the  neighboring  Islands  of  Coche  and  Cubagua. 
About  four  hundred  sail-boats  of  from  three  to 
fifteen  tons,  employing  two  thousand  men,  are 
constantly  at  work  in  these  fisheries. 

A  French  company  purchased  a  concession 
about  the  year  1900  from  a  Venezuelan  to  fish 
in  this  neighborhood.  It  was  to  pay  the 
Venezuelan  government  10  per  cent,  of  the  prof- 
its as  royalty  and  use  divers  and  diving  appa- 
ratus so  as  to  select  the  oysters  and  avoid  waste 
of  the  immature.  Fishing  by  natives  is  done 
mostly  by  dredging  with  metal  scoops.  It  is  es- 
timated that  upwards  of  $600,000  worth  of  pearls 
are  found  about  the  island  of  Margarita  per 
annum,  most  of  them  going  to  the  Paris  market. 

Exclusive  rights  have  been  granted  a  Vene- 
zuelan citizen  by  the  local  government  lately 
to  exploit  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco  for  pearls  and 
other  sea  products.  The  contract  is  for  twenty- 
five  years.  Certain  advantages  are  guaranteed 
by  the  government  which  is  to  receive  fifteen 
per  cent,  of  the  net  profits  of  the  enterprise. 

About  forty  or  fifty  years  ago  several  English 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

companies  conducted  profitable  fisheries  in  the 
lower  Gulf  of  Maracaibo  and  on  the  coasts  of 
the  Goajira  territory  and  Paraguana.  They 
employed  Indians  as  divers.  Revolutionary 
troubles  during  the  last  twenty-five  years  so 
demoralized  the  Indians,  that  the  industry  was 
finally  broken  up.  Reports  from  authoritative 
sources  indicate,  that  not  only  could  paying 
fisheries  be  established  here,  but  that  the 
interior  is  rich  in  minerals  and  precious  stones. 

Until  lately  there  have  been  few  restrictions 
upon  fishing  along  the  Venezuelan  coast  beyond 
a  tax  of  fifty  dollars  imposed  by  local  authori- 
ties upon  the  buyers  and  the  payment  of  fifteen 
bolivars  ($2.90)  by  each  boat  for  a  fishing  permit 
at  Margarita. 

The  oysters  of  this  coast  mature  rapidly  and 
like  those  of  Ceylon  live  but  six  or  seven  years. 
They  are  small  and  the  shells  are  so  thin  that 
they  can  be  crushed  between  the  fingers.  They 
are  of  the  Lingah  type  and  are  named  by  some 
avicula  squamulosa.  The  nacreous  lining  is 
also  very  thin,  but  lustrous  and  beautifully 
iridescent.  The  pearls  run  small  and  very  many 
of  them  are  quite  yellow. 

239 


THE   PEARL 

Many  fine  white  pearls  are  found  however, 
though  they  incline  frequently  to  a  waxy 
luster  and  are  often  marred  by  chalky  spots. 
Great  quantities  of  baroques,  notably  beautiful 
for  color  and  orient,  are  found.  Round  pearls 
with  a  china-like  skin  in  many  colors  are  also 
quite  common.  The  average  size  and  quality 
is  not  equal  to  those  of  the  Indian  waters, 
though  it  is  much  better  than  is  generally 
credited,  as  the  traders  in  this  country  for  some 
inexplicable  reason  have  an  idea  that  Ven- 
ezuelan pearls  are  necessarily  poorer  than 
others. 

This  notion  has  probably  been  fostered  among 
American  buyers  by  the  Parisian  dealers  who 
at  present  well  nigh  control  the  output  of  these 
fisheries  and  naturally  fear  the  diversion  to  a 
neighboring  market  which  now  pays  a  heavy 
toll  to  Paris  on  pearls  taken  from  this  continent. 
It  is  true  an  unusually  large  percentage  of 
cracked  pearls  is  found  among  Venezuelans, 
and  they  lose  perceptibly  in  weight  after  being 
brought  from  the  fisheries  the  loss  averaging 
fully  one-eighth  of  one  per  cent.,  nevertheless 
many  pearls  of  the  finest  quality  are  taken  from 

240 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

these  fisheries.  All  pearls  are  subject  to  slight 
variations  in  weight. 

It  was  from  the  fisheries  of  Colombia  that 
Philip  II.  of  Spain  received  the  large  pearl  of 
250  carats,  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a 
pigeon's  egg,  so  often  mentioned  in  the  chroni- 
cles of  precious  stones. 

The  management  of  the  pearl  fisheries  of  the 
Colombia  of  to-day  is  in  the  hands  of  the  central 
bank  of  Colombia  which  is  empowered  to 
transact  business  pertaining  to  property  belong- 
ing to  the  government.  This  institution  holds  a 
public  auction  and  awards  the  lease  of  the  rights 
to  fish  for  pearls,  coral,  etc.,  on  the  Colombian 
coasts  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  to 
the  most  desirable  bidder.  The  lessee  must  be 
governed  by  the  rules  and  regulations  laid 
down  by  the  bank.  The  lease  is  for  five  years 
and  went  into  effect  August  ist,  1906. 

New  pearl  oyster-beds  were  discovered  in 
1903  in  the  Gulf  of  Campeche  near  Coatza- 
coalcos  and  application  was  made  by  a  Mexican 
to  the  Mexican  government  for  a  concession  to 
work  them.  There  are  extensive  beds,  which 
are  constantly  fished,  along  the  eastern  coast  of 

16  241 


THE   PEARL 

Lower  California  from  its  junction  with  the 
United  States  to  Cape  San  Lucas.  La  Paz  is 
the  principal  centre  of  the  fisheries.  An  English 
syndicate  has  a  concession  from,  the  Mexican 
government  which  was  lately  renewed,  for 
fishing  about  La  Paz.  Pearls  worth  $350,000, 
among  them  many  fine  black  pearls,  and  five 
thousand  tons  of  shells  valued  at  $1,250,000, 
were  taken  in  1904.  This  syndicate  employs 
all  the  modern  appliances. 

Beds  are  known  and  worked  from  La  Paz 
to  and  about  the  island  of  Loreto  on  the  east 
coast,  and  at  the  island  of  Tiburon  over  on 
the  East  side  of  the  gulf,  and  from  Mazatlan 
all  along  the  coast  of  Mexico  proper  to  the 
boundary  line  of  Guatemala.  These  beds  were 
discovered  by  Cortez  in  1536  and  were  worked 
spasmodically  for  two  centuries;  then  for  a 
period  they  were  fished  so  constantly  and 
thoroughly  that  the  market  was  over-loaded 
with  pearls  and  the  supply  of  oysters  seriously 
diminished.  Of  late  years  fishing  has  been  again 
carried  on  systematically  and  with  sufficient 
judgment  to  prevent  the  immediate  destruction 
of  the  beds  as  before. 

242 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

A  pearl  oyster-bed  ten  miles  long  has  lately 
been  located  at  the  Punta  de  Santa  Cristoval. 
The  Mexican  season  for  fishing  varies  in  locali- 
ties from  May  to  November,  or  June  to  Decem- 
ber. The  day's  work  of  the  diver  commences  at 
near  the  ebb  tide  and  ends  shortly  after  the 
beginning  of  the  flood  tide,  about  three  hours 
in  all.  Much  fishing  is  done  by  independent 
naked  native  divers,  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  of  the  Hindus  and  Arabs,  but  some  of  the 
large  concessionaires  supply  their  divers  with 
helmets  and  other  modern  appliances. 

Schooners  of  various  sizes  having  several 
boats,  carry  the  fishing  parties  to  the  banks 
and  the  men  live  on  them  through  the  entire 
season.  The  daily  catches  are  delivered  to  an 
armed  boat  which  carries  the  oysters  ashore, 
where  they  are  at  once  searched  for  pearls. 
These  when  found  are  immediately  sorted  and 
valued,  a  percentage  going  to  the  diver  in 
addition  to  his  wages,  if  he  is  a  regular  employee 
of  the  Company. 

The  oysters  are  found  adhering  to  rocks  by 
the  byssus,  generally  in  bunches,  hinge-side 
down,  curved  side  up  and  the  shells  slightly 

243 


THE   PEARL 

parted.  The  diver  cuts  them  loose  with  a  knife 
and  deposits  them  in  his  basket  or  net.  One 
hundred  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  is  a  good  day's 
work  for  a  naked  diver,  but  with  the  appliances 
now  being  introduced,  a  diver  in  dress  can  raise 
fully  double  that  number.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  there  are  elements  of  uncertainty  and 
irregularity  in  the  catch  of  the  meleagrina.  As 
compared  with  the  enormous  and  crowded  beds 
of  the  small  varieties  as  they  exist  in  the  Gulf 
of  Manaar  and  at  the  island  of  Margarita, 
Venezuela,  where  they  can  be  literally  scooped 
up,  the  scattered  bunches  of  the  meleagrina  do 
not  afford  easy  data  for  reckoning  averages. 

On  the  coasts  of  China,  Japan,  Korea,  some 
of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  the  English  Channel 
islands,  the  Canary  islands,  about  St.  Malo  on 
the  coast  of  France,  at  Queen  Charlotte's  island 
and  along  the  coast  of  California  from  north 
of  San  Francisco  to  the  border  of  Lower 
California,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  India, 
Australia  and  New  Zealand,  a  shell-fish  is  taken 
which  has  considerable  commercial  value  and 
yields  pearls  to  a  limited  extent. 

It  is  called  in  this  country  abalone.  In  the 
244 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

Channel  islands  it  is  known  as  the  ormer.  It 
is  the  Haliotis  or  Earshell.  The  Greeks  called  it 
venus  ear  shell  and  used  it  as  a  food,  considering 
it  most  nutritious.  Old  English  writers  praised 
it  as  a  delicious  morsel  under  the  name  of 
ormond  saying  that  it  was  bigger  and  infinitely 
better  than  the  oyster.  This  shell-fish  attaches 
itself  to  the  rocks  by  a  flat,  disk-shaped  foot 
and  must  be  taken  when  the  tide  is  low.  The 
fisherman  can  then  insert  a  knife  by  stealth 
under  the  foot  and  taking  the  fish  unawares, 
destroy  the  suction.  Otherwise  the  hold  of  the 
fish  could  not  be  broken  without  destroying 
the  shell.  New  Zealanders  call  the  fish  itself 
the  mutton  fish. 

The  Japanese,  Chinese  and  Indians  of  the 
Pacific  coast  have  long  used  it  as  an  article  of 
food.  The  shells  are  valuable  on  account  of  the 
very  beautiful  nacreous  lining  which  is  excep- 
tionally good  material  for  buttons  and  various 
ornamental  purposes.  The  lining  has  an 
exquisite  play  of  colors  in  the  richest  tones  of 
peacock  greens  and  reds.  There  are  about 
seventy  species  of  the  Haliotis  and  the  shells 
vary  greatly  in  size.  The  British  ormer  (H. 
245 


THE   PEARL 

tuberculata)  is  of  small  size,  about  six  inches 
long  and  is  silvery.  The  shells  are  sometimes 
called  in  trade  aurora  shells.  After  being  well 
beaten  to  make  them  tender  the  animals  are 
used  for  food. 

The  ormer  or  auris  marina  was  esteemed  by 
the  ancients  as  a  very  sweet  and  luscious  dish. 
The  people  of  the  Channel  islands  ornament 
their  houses  with  the  shells  and  farmers  use 
them  to  frighten  the  birds  from  their  corn-fields. 
They  string  several  together  and  suspend  them 
from  the  end  of  a  slender  pole  stuck  in  the 
ground.  The  wind  swaying  them,  makes  a 
constant  clatter.  The  Haliotis  iris  of  New 
Zealand  is  green  and  brilliantly  iridescent.  A 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  species  (H.  Mida),  under  the 
epidermis  is  tinged  with  color,  principally 
orange. 

Some  of  the  more  beautiful  species  were 
formerly  very  abundant  on  the  coasts  of  China 
and  Japan,  but  the  constant  use  of  the  animal 
for  many  years  as  a  food  stuff  has  made  them 
less  common  there  and  the  Chinese  and  Japanese 
now  obtain  a  large  part  of  their  supply  from 
California,  where  the  haliotis  or  abalone,  as  it 
246 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

is  called  is  taken  in  great  quantities.  The  two 
most  beautiful  species  found  on  this  coast  are, 
the  Haliotis  splendens,  a  magnificent  shell  of 
rainbow  coloring  in  which  peacock  green  pre- 
dominates, and  H.  rufescens,  the  lining  of  which 
is  red.  When  found,  the  latter  is  usually 
thickly  incrusted  and  coated  with  vegetation. 
The  green  and  red  range  from  seven  to  ten 
inches,  the  latter  being  generally  the  larger. 

Another  variety,  H.  cracherodii,  very  dark 
green  or  black  without,  and  with  no  apparent 
beauty,  has  a  small  opalescent  bit  inside  the 
shell  which  is  cut  out  and  made  into  articles  of 
jewelry.  This  is  common  in  crevices  of  rocks. 
A  variety  called  bluebacks  has  a  bright  clayey 
blue  exterior.  The  Indians  of  the  Pacific  coast 
have  used  these  shells  as  material  for  jewelry 
and  decoration  for  centuries,  but  not  until  the 
button-makers  of  Europe  and  New  York  began 
to  utilize  them  did  they  become  an  item  of 
importance  among  the  exports  of  the  Pacific 
coast. 

Few  pearls  are  found  in  the  abalone  but  they 
yield  a  considerable  number  of  large  rounded 
baroques  and  excrescences,  rich  and  beautiful 

247 


THE   PEARL 

in  color  and  of  fair  luster,  also  odd-shaped 
pieces  like  blisters  matched  and  joined  at  the 
edges.  The  greens  have  a  bronze  appearance 
and  the  reds  and  pinks  are  often  iridescent. 
Quite  a  number  of  good  "peelers"  are  found 
among  them.  These  are  pearly  formations 
which  can  be  improved  by  taking  off  one  or 
more  of  the  outer  skins. 

Pearl-fishing,  principally  by  Greeks,  has  been 
carried  on  about  the  west  and  south  coast  of 
Haiti,  but  lately  the  government  has  granted  a 
concession  to  four  of  its  citizens  covering  nine 
years  with  the  privilege  of  renewal  at  the  end 
of  that  period.  This  will  prohibit  all  others 
from  fishing  unless  they  rent  the  privilege  from 
the  concessionaires. 

To  the  south  of  the  Philippines,  pearl-fish- 
eries were  worked  by  the  natives  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the  industry  .is 
still  carried  on,  chiefly  by  antiquated  methods. 
The  coasts  of  the  Sulu  islands,  at  Jolo  and  else- 
where and  about  the  island  of  Mindanao,  have 
yielded  many  fine  pearls  and  continue  to  do  so. 
The  shells  from  these  waters  furnish  very  fine 
mother-of-pearl. 

248 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

All  things  considered,  the  largest  and  best 
equipped  fisheries  in  the  world  to-day  are  those 
on  the  coast  of  Australia.  Not  as  many  pearls 
are  found  as  at  Ceylon.  The  main  object  of 
fishing  is  the  shell,  which  is  large,  heavy,  and 
furnishes  the  best  quality  of  mother-of-pearl  of 
the  white  variety.  From  Charlotte's  Bay  on 
the  north-eastern  coast,  all  along  the  northern 
coast  and  around  to  Exmouth  Gulf  on  the 
western  coast,  pearl-oysters  are  abundant. 
Farther  south  at  Sharks  Bay,  the  oysters  are 
smaller  and  the  pearls,  though  of  good  shape 
and  luster,  run  yellow.  Shells  from  the  coast  of 
Queensland  are  sold  as  Sydney  shell ;  those  from 
the  northern  territory  of  South  Australia,  as 
Port  Darwin  shell,  and  from  there  to  Exmouth 
Gulf  on  the  western  coast,  they  are  marketed 
as  West  Australian  shell. 

The  fishing  is  carried  on  by  organized  com- 
panies having  capital,  and  every  modern 
appliance  of  practical  value  is  utilized.  The 
divers  fish  with  the  dress.  The  usual  method 
of  fishing  is  for  a  schooner  of  eighty  to  one 
hundred  tons  to  put  out  with  a  number  of 
luggers  of  from  eight  to  ten  tons.  Each  lugger 

249 


THE   PEARL 

is  manned  by  a  captain,  a  cook,  one  man  at  the 
life-line,  two  men  at  the  air-pumps  and  one 
diver.  Each  lugger  will  average  half  a  ton  of 
shells  per  month  ranging  from  1600  to  2000 
to  the  ton.  The  pearls  like  the  shells  run  white. 

The  Australians  are  not  only  pushing  this 
industry  along  their  own  coast,  but  are  extend- 
ing operations  along  the  islands  north  toward 
the  equator,  wherever  it  is  possible.  And 
wherever  they  go  they  carry  with  them  the  best 
modern  appliances  and  methods.  Lately  how- 
ever operations  have  been  considerably  cur- 
tailed in  the  Torres  straits  owing  to  the  enforce- 
ment of  laws  for  the  protection  of  divers. 

Lack  of  men  for  diving  caused  some  of  the 
operators  to  use  questionable  means  to  obtain  a 
supply.  Boats  were  sent  through  the  South  Sea 
among  the  islands  and  aborigines,  Chinese, 
and  even  European  sailors,  were  kidnapped  and 
held  in  practical  slavery.  Many  lives  have  been 
lost  in  these  fisheries  and  the  evils  connected 
with  the  industry  became  so  notorious  that  the 
government  took  action.  It  is  probable  that 
the  business  will  be  reorganized  and  either 
conducted  by  the  state  or  under  government 

250 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

supervision.  Natives  are  now  being  trained 
to  use  the  dress. 

Few  pearls  are  found  and  it  not  infrequently 
happens  that  as  many  as  fifteen  to  twenty  tons 
of  shells  are  raised  without  finding  a  single 
pearl  of  value.  At  this  time  shells  from  these 
fisheries  bring  from  $500  to  $750  per  ton  in  the 
New  York  market.  Helmets  have  been  used 
to  some  extent  throughout  the  Pacific  for  a 
number  of  years,  but  many  were  crude  affairs, 
carelessly  managed  and  the  loss  of  life  was  as 
great  as  by  naked-diving.  The  training  of  the 
natives  to  the  use  of  the  more  modern  appli- 
ances will  however  engender  confidence  and  the 
probability  is  that  dress-diving  will  become 
general  in  the  south  seas  wherever  the  industry 
is  organized. 

As  a  rule  the  largest  oysters  and  pearls,  where 
there  is  a  calcareous  foundation  for  the  bed,  are 
taken  from  the  deeper  waters,  and  it  is  probable 
that  as  modern  appliances  are  more  generally 
used  by  the  larger  organizations  now  taking  hold 
of  the  industry,  the  fisheries  will  be  extended 
with  good  results  in  many  localities  to  waters 
beyond  the  shallows  now  fished.  More  syste- 

251 


THE   PEARL 

matic  methods  will  prevent  waste  and  the 
destruction  of  the  beds. 

The  English  Colonial  governments  of  India 
are  doing  much  in  this  direction.  By  keeping 
experts  upon  the  ground,  they  have  learned 
how  to  fish  without  destroying  the  beds,  and 
to  fish  when  it  is  possible  for  the  oysters  to 
contain  pearls.  Strict  supervision  and  protec- 
tion of  the  beds  result  in  more  frequent  fishings 
and  greater  returns  to  both  the  government 
and  the  fishermen. 

This  example  is  being  followed,  and  pearl 
fisheries  are  gradually  coming  either  under 
governmental  supervision  or  into  the  hands  of 
concessionaires,  whose  large  investment  makes 
the  preservation  of  the  beds  a  business  neces- 
sity, whether  they  fish  mainly  for  pearls  or 
shells. 

The  best  pearls  and  the  largest  number  are 
found  usually  in  mature  shells  which  are  dis- 
torted ;  it  has  been  stated  as  a  possibility,  that 
in  the  future  some  of  the  new  rays  will  be  used 
in  fisheries  where  the  pearl  is  the  main  object 
of  the  fisher,  to  ascertain  if  the  oyster  contains 
any  before  destroying  it.  M.  Dubois  of  Lyons 

252 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

has  experimented  with  Roentgen  rays  for  that 
purpose. 

As  the  fish  is  enormously  prolific  it  is  more 
probable  however  that  effort  will  be  directed 
instead  toward  the  preservation  of  the  mollusk 
from  the  enemies  and  accidents  which  are 
occasionally  greater  than  its  productiveness. 

One  of  the  greatest  dangers  in  Indian  waters 
to  a  bed  of  young  oysters  is  a  little  mollusk 
known  locally  in  Ceylon  as  suran  (Modiola). 
These  cluster  in  masses  on  the  sea  bottom 
and  spreading  over  the  surface  of  the  coral, 
crowd  out  the  delicate  young  of  oysters 
recently  deposited. 

The  Japanese  fisheries  suffer  from  the  occa- 
sional infection  of  the  waters  by  a  weed, 
dinoflagellata  gonyaulax.  It  accumulates  in 
immense  quantities,  causing  a  wide  discolora- 
tion of  the  sea  water  and  is  very  destructive  to 
an  oyster-bed.  It  is  called  the  red  current  or 
red  tide.  So  far  no  preventive  or  remedy  has 
been  found. 

Hitherto  the  most  general  and  fatal  danger  to 
oyster-beds  has  been  the  ungoverned  extrava- 
gance of  irresponsible  fishers  who  seek  to  harvest 

253 


THE   PEARL 

in  the  present  regardless  of  the  future,  but  these 
are  gradually  being  made  amenable  to  restric- 
tive laws  as  authorities  awake  to  the  value  of 
the  industry.  A  greater  danger  which  threatens 
the  unio  of  American  streams,  is  the  pollution 
of  the  water  by  the  discharge  of  the  refuse  of 
factories  and  the  sewage  of  cities  into  them.  A 
mussel  bed  will  recover  in  time  when  denuded 
by  fishers,  but  sewage  and  poison  kills  it  out 
entirely. 

Although  fresh-water  pearl-bearing  mussels 
are  found  in  the  streams  of  many  countries, 
only  in  the  United  States  are  they  taken  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  make  the  fishings 
important  as  an  industry.  They  are  to  be  found 
throughout  the  Mississippi  drainage  area  and 
in  part  of  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Few  exist 
on  the  Pacific  coast  and  those  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  are  generally  inferior  as  pearl  mussels. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  the  unio  which 
yield  pearls.  Latin  names  are  given  by  different 
writers  to  distinguish  them,  but  as  scientists 
differ  in  their  classifications,  the  names  are  not 
always  uniform  and  are  not  sufficiently  well 
established  to  be  useful,  descriptively,  to  the 

254 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

general  reader.  In  treating  of  the  various  kinds 
of  pearl-bearing  unios  of  the  United  States 
therefore  in  these  pages,  the  common  names  by 
which  they  are  known  will  as  a  rule  be  used  with 
the  scientific  names  appended,  as  revised  by 
the  department  of  mollusks  of  the  United  States 
National  Museum. 

From  the  times  of  Roman  colonization  until 
now,  pearls  have  been  taken  from  the  mussels 
of  British  streams.  There  are  three  varieties 
of  pearl-bearing  mussels  in  Great  Britain: 
Painter's  mussel  (U.  pictorum),  the  Swollen 
River  mussel  (U.  tumidus)  and  the  Pearl 
mussel  (U.  margaritif era) . 

The  first  two  occur  only  in  the  streams  and 
ponds  of  England  and  Wales  and  the  pearls 
found  in  them  are  of  inferior  quality.  The 
latter  inhabits  the  streams  of  Scotland  and  the 
northern  counties  of  England  and  to  some  extent 
are  found  in  Ireland  and  Wales  also.  The  shell 
is  oblong,  rather  flat  and  heavy  and  about  five 
and  one-half  inches  long.  The  exterior  surface 
is  rough,  and  blackish-brown;  the  pearly 
interior  has  a  tint  of  flesh  color  mottled  by 
stains  of  dull  green.  It  was  from  this  variety 

255 


THE   PEARL 

the  Perthshire  Tay  pearls  were  taken,  which 
gained  so  much  notoriety  in  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  when  some  fifty  thousand 
dollars  worth  were  sent  to  London  from  this 
stream  in  three  years. 

Scotch  pearl-fishing  was  revived  in  1860  and 
some  fine  ones  were  sold  to  Queen  Victoria, 
the  Empress  of  the  French,  the  Duchess  of 
Hamilton  and  others.  Pearl-mussels  have  been 
found  in  Lochs  Rannoch,  Tay,  Lubnaig  and 
Earn,  also  in  the  Don,  the  Leith  and  other 
streams.  Some  are  found  in  the  Welsh  streams, 
and  the  river  Bann  in  Ireland  was  noted  for 
the  fine  pearls  found  in  it.  Many  years  ago 
there  was  a  pearl  fishery  at  Omagh  in  the  north 
of  Ireland.  An  old  writer  claims  that  Caesar 
obtained  pearls  of  such  bigness  in  Britain  that 
he  tried  the  weight  of  them  by  his  hand. 

The  fishers  wade  for  them  in  shallow  pools, 
or  thrust  sticks  between  the  open  valves,  or 
drag  branches  over  them,  for  as  soon  as  any- 
thing enters  between  the  two  shells  they  close 
upon  it  at  once.  The  mussels  are  found  gen- 
erally set  up  in  the  sand  of  the  river-bed  with 
the  open  side,  if  the  current  is  very  strong, 
256 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

turned  away  from  it.  The  custom  of  the 
peasantry  is  to  fish  for  them  in  the  autumn  after 
harvest. 

Pearl-mussels  are  found  also  in  Saxony, 
Bavaria,  Bohemia,  Mesopotamia,  Lapland, 
Canada,  Labrador,  the  Hawaiian  Island  Oahu, 
Japan  (especially  the  anodonta  japonica), 
China,  the  United  States  and  Italy,  in  the 
Gwaai  and  Shangani  rivers  of  Southern 
Rhodesia,  South  Africa.  Nowhere  are  they 
found  however  in  such  quantities  or  in  so  many 
varieties  as  in  the  United  States.  The  number 
taken  from  the  streams  here  of  late  years  has 
been  so  great  that  the  shells  have  largely  dis- 
placed the  marine  Egyptian  and  have  affected 
the  demand  for  the  better  qualities  of  South 
Sea  mother-of-pearl.  The  pearls  found  in  them 
also  have  been  of  such  quality  and  quantity 
that  they  now  have  an  important  place  among 
the  jewels  of  the  world. 

Old  records  and  the  contents  of  Indian 
mounds  show  that  the  unio  was  taken  from  the 
rivers  by  the  aborigines  for  the  pearls  they 
sometimes  contained;  but  no  wide  interest  in 
this  possible  wealth  of  the  rivers  appears  to 
17  257 


THE   PEARL 

have  developed  among  their  white  successors 
until  the  finding  in  1857  of  a  large  pearl  weigh- 
ing ninety-three  grains  at  Notch  Brook  near 
Paterson,  N.  J.  It  was  afterwards  sold  to  the 
Empress  Eugenie  of  France  for  $2500.  This 
became  noised  abroad  and  immediately  multi- 
tudes began  to  search  for  pearls. 

Mussels  were  gathered  and  destroyed  by  the 
million,  few  pearls  being  found.  The  excite- 
ment subsided  as  the  searchers  learned  how 
few  got  adequate  reward  for  their  time  and 
labor.  They  soon  began  to  realize  that  the 
finding  of  a  pearl  of  value  is  usually  preceded 
by  the  opening  of  hundreds  or  thousands  of 
shells  containing  none,  and  that  in  the  aggre- 
gate, the  shells  thrown  away  were  worth  more 
than  the  few  pearls  found. 

Another  pearl  hunt  developed  along  the 
Little  Miami  River  in  Ohio  from  the  finding  of 
several  fine  pearls  near  Waynes ville  in  1876. 
This  reached  its  height  in  1878.  In  1880,  pearls 
began  to  come  into  the  New  York  market  from 
the  West  and  South.  Immense  beds  have  been 
fished  in  the  White,  Wabash  and  Ohio  Rivers 
in  Indiana.  In  the  summer  of  1889  a  number 

258 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

of  fine  pearls  were  found  in  the  southwestern 
corner  of  Wisconsin,  in  Crawford,  Grant, 
Lafayette  and  Green  counties.  Not  only  were 
they  notable  for  extraordinary  luster,  but  many 
were  of  beautiful  color.  The  sale  of  some  at 
prices  which  seemed  fabulous  to  the  people  of 
that  section,  when  it  became  generally  known, 
caused  such  a  scramble  for  them  by  the  natives 
that  the  streams  were  rapidly  denuded  of 
mussels,  and  that  section  has  become  of  much 
less  importance  than  others  since  developed. 
Prairie  du  Chien  is  the  center  of  the  Wisconsin 
market,  from  which  point  the  shells  are  distrib- 
uted to  the  button  factories. 

The  following  year  (1890)  pearl-bearing 
mussels  were  found  in  several  of  the  central 
counties  of  Illinois — McLean,  Tazewell  and 
Woodford,  in  the  Mackinaw  river  and  tribut- 
aries, but  no  discovery  equalling  that  of  Wis- 
consin occurred  until  1897  when  the  Arkansas 
beds  were  discovered.  A  peculiarity  of  this 
district  is  that  whereas  the  unio  is  usually 
most  abundant  in  swift  clear  water  having  a 
sandy  or  gravelly  bottom,  many  are  found 
here  in  the  mud. 

259 


THE   PEARL 

They  have  been  taken  over  a  wide  territory 
from  the  rivers  and  streams  of  the  eastern  half 
of  the  state,  including  the  Black,  White,  Cache, 
St.  Francis,  Ouachita,  Saline  and  Dorcheat 
rivers,  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Arkansas.  Fol- 
lowing this  were  finds  in  Indian  Territory, 
Missouri,  Georgia  and  Tennessee,  the  latter  being 
the  most  prolific.  The  finest  pearls  in  Tennessee 
are  found  in  the  fluter,  or  lake  shell,  which  is 
the  same  as  the  mussel  known  on  the  Wabash 
as  the  washboard.  A  yellow  shell  is  found  in 
the  Clinch  River  similar  to  the  mucket  of 
Arkansas,  from  which  pearls  are  taken. 

Unlike  the  pearl  oyster,  the  unio  seems  to  be 
more  prolific  of  pearls  in  the  shallows  and 
riffles  near  the  edges  of  the  rivers.  Most  of  the 
fine  pearls  are  found  between  the  pallial  line 
and  the  lip  in  the  free  portion  of  the  mantle. 
Those  found  within  the  pallial  line,  where  the 
mantle  is  attached  to  the  shell,  are  seldom  as 
lustrous  or  perfect. 

Pearls  are  found  in  many  States  besides  those 
mentioned,  but  the  fishing  is  done  quietly  and 
in  some  cases  the  sources  of  supply  are  known 
to  only  a  few  who  in  the  marketing  of  their 

260 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

pearls  carefully  avoid  giving  any  information. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  some  of  the  eastern 
states.  Streams  in  the  Northwestern  section 
of  New  York  State  are  regularly  fished,  but 
without  excitement.  The  large  fisheries  of  the 
Mississippi  and  West  are  fished  principally  for 
the  mother-of-pearl  in  the  shells.  As  with  some 
of  the  marine  fisheries,  the  pearl  is  regarded 
as  an  extra. 

The  mussels  are  taken  in  various  ways.  In 
Canada,  boats  drag  brush  and  the  branches  of 
trees  over  the  river  bottoms,  gathering  the 
mussels  into  the  boat  as  the  twigs  become 
clogged.  In  the  large  beds  often  found  in  our 
Western  Rivers,  fishing  is  done  wherever 
possible  by  dredging.  Metal  scoops,  hand, 
shoulder  and  scissor-rakes  are  used  and  the 
mollusks,  taken  in  immense  quantities  are 
cooked  to  open  them,  then  cleaned  of  the  meat 
which  is  afterwards  examined  for  pearls.  This 
method  is  used  where  the  mussels  lie  in  great 
masses  or  on  sandy  bottoms.  Where  there 
are  boulders  or  large  stones,  a  great  number 
of  hooks  are  dragged  over  the  beds. 

The  mussels,  partially  buried,  lie  lip-end  up 
261 


THE   PEARL 

and  the  shell  slightly  parted.  Should  anything 
come  within  this  gaping  aperture,  the  mussel 
at  once  closes  upon  it,  nipping  on  with  such 
tenacity  that  the  hold  is  not  loosed  until  the 
fisher  draws  it  into  the  boat  and  forcibly 
releases  the  hook.  It  is  said  the  mollusk's  shell 
would  remain  thus  tightly  closed  for  ten  or 
twelve  hours.  After  dragging  the  hooks  over 
the  bed,  the  mussels  are  taken  off  and  the  pro- 
cess repeated. 

Various  rough  devices  are  used,  the  principle 
in  all  being  the  same.  One,  illustrative,  con- 
sists of  a  piece  of  lead  pipe  or  an  iron  bar 
several  feet  long,  from  which  depend  a  number 
of  double  or  triple  hooks  several  inches  apart. 
This  is  dropped  overboard,  the  rope  on  which  it 
is  hung  is  fastened  to  the  stern  of  the  boat,  and 
the  boatman  rows  over  the  mussel  bed  dragging 
it  after  him.  Men  who  dredge  for  the  mollusks 
are  called  clammers.  Pearlers  are  those  who 
at  odd  times  fish  for  the  mussels  with  pearls  as 
the  main  object.  This  class  is  composed  of  the 
backwoods  natives  who  live  about  the  streams 
in  which  the  mussels  are  found.  They  are 
people  who  usually  follow  their  inclinations  as 
262 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

nearly  as  they  can,  working  only  as  it  becomes 
requisite  to  obtain  the  few  coarse  necessities 
of  their  lives.  With  them  also  are  small  farmers 
who  at  seasons  when  farm  work  is  not  pressing, 
seek  the  excitement  and  possible  profit  of  the 
hunt  for  pearls. 

For  all  such  persons  the  occupation  has  a 
great  fascination.  The  difficulties  of  following 
the  streams  through  almost  impenetrable  sur- 
roundings, the  coarse  fare  of  bacon,  meal  and 
coffee;  the  long  tramps  back  and  forth  to 
their  mountain  huts,  or  the  exposure  to  night 
in  the  tangle  of  the  woods,  have  no  terrors  for 
them;  they  are  but  common  experiences. 

Few  pearls  of  value  are  found,  but  the  occa- 
sional pearl  which  each  one  does  get,  makes 
expectation  tingle,  and  hope  recounts  again 
and  again  the  great  finds  which  others  have 
made.  There  are  curious  happenings  which 
illustrate  the  uncertainties  of  the  work. 

It  is  told  on  the  Clinch  river  in  East  Tennessee 
that  a  pearler,  having  patiently  fished  all  day, 
examining  the  fish  from  time  to  time  as  little 
heaps  of  them  were  gathered,  without  finding 
even  a  small  pearl,  finally  decided  to  quit. 
263 


THE   PEARL 

He  was  about  to  examine  his  last  small  heap 
when  a  man  standing  by  offered  him  fifty  cents 
for  the  lot.  The  offer  was  accepted.  From  the 
first  shell  opened,  the  buyer  extracted  a  ball 
pearl  which  was  afterwards  sold  for  one  thou- 
sand dollars.  Two  of  the  finest  pearls  taken 
one  season  from  the  same  section  were  obtained 
from  a  heel-splitter,  carelessly  dug  out  of  the 
sand  by  a  man  wading  in  the  shallows  of  the 
river.  The  heel-splitter  is  a  large  thin-shelled 
variety,  so  named  by  the  natives  because  of 
the  sharp,  cutting  quality  of  the  shell  which 
protrudes  from  the  sand  of  the  river.  They 
rarely  contain  pearls,  but  when  they  do,  the 
pearls  are  usually  fine. 

The  largest  proportion  of  fine  pearls  to  the 
yield  of  any  section  since  discoveries  have  been 
recorded,  came  from  Wisconsin,  and  many  of 
the  best  of  these,  especially  of  the  fancy  colored 
ones,  were  taken  from  Sugar  river.  Many  of 
these  were  exceptionally  beautiful  in  both  color 
and  luster  and  a  good  proportion  of  them  were 
also  round. 

Much  is  written  and  told  of  the  marvellous 
pearls  found  in  our  streams  worth  large  sums 

264 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

of  money.  Such  pearls  are  found  undoubtedly 
but  not  in  such  quantities  as  one  might  think 
from  the  enthusiastic  reports  current  in  daily 
papers.  Finds  are  written  up  by  reporters  who 
know  nothing  of  pearls  and  prefer  to  write  a 
readable  story  of  wondrous  gems  and  great 
values  to  a  statement  of  plain  unvarnished 
facts.  In  this  the  news-gatherer  is  assisted  by 
some  simple  native  with  an  eye  single  to  a  good 
price  and  a  capacity  for  exaggerated  ideas  of 
value  impossible  to  Maiden  Lane. 

It  is  no  uncommon  trick  when  buyers  are 
present,  to  find  again,  a  pearl,  which  has  been 
to  New  York  and  back  and  the  ruse  often  suc- 
ceeds. Pearls  are  frequently  sold  at  the  fisheries 
for  much  more  than  they  would  bring  in  the 
east.  In  fact  it  is  difficult  to  buy  ordinary 
pearls  at  a  reasonable  price.  The  natives 
will  sometimes  sell  a  really  fine  pearl  for  less 
than  it  is  worth  because  they  do  not  understand 
the  relative  values  of  quality ;  but  they  usually 
over-estimate  pieces  of  poor  quality. 

A  large  majority  of  those  found  in  our  fresh- 
water mussels  fail  in  some  essential  quality. 
Many  are  chalky,  or  lustrous  at  one  or  two 
265 


THE   PEARL 

points  only.  Others  are  faulty  in  shape,  or  if 
spherical,  deeply  pitted.  Really  fine  pieces  are 
usually  small  or  button,  and  when  large,  are 
baroques.  Some  of  the  latter  are  magnificent. 
Weighing  fifty  to  over  one  hundred  grains,  with 
skins  of  extraordinary  luster  and  iridescence; 
white,  or  of  a  beautiful  pink  tint,  these  straw- 
berry or  rose  pearls,  as  they  are  called,  fre- 
quently excel,  by  every  standard  of  beauty, 
the  imperfect  spheres  which  command  a  greater 
price  in  the  market  because  they  are  round. 

The  most  common  variety  of  unio  in  American 
rivers,  especially  in  the  Mississippi  river,  is 
that  known  as  the  nigger-head  (Quadrula 
ebena).  It  is  also  the  principal  species  used 
for  button-making. 

Similar  is  the  warty-back  (Quadrula  pustu- 
losa)  so  called  because  the  shell  has  a  number 
of  warts  or  excrescences  on  the  outside  of  the 
valves .  The  ' '  bull-head ' '  (Pleurobena  Aesopus) 
is  found  in  abundance  with  the  nigger-head. 
It  has  a  blackish-brown  exterior,  presenting 
several  radiating  ridges,  and  a  white  lining. 
The  two  latter  are  inferior  as  material  for 
buttons  as  the  shells  are  brittle.  The  mucket 
266 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

(Lampsilis  ligamentinus)  is  a  large  shell,  aver- 
age size  4  inches,  has  a  dark  brown  exterior 
and  cream-white  lining.  It  is  too  thin  and 
brittle  to  make  first  class  material  for  buttons 
though  fine  pearls  are  sometimes  found  in 
them. 

The  sand-shells  furnish  good  material  for 
buttons.  They  are  long,  sometimes  six  inches, 
and  narrow.  They  are  usually  found  on  sandy 
bottoms  and  are  said  to  move  from  the  channel 
toward  the  shores  in  the  morning  and  back  in 
the  evening.  The  most  abundant  is  the  yellow 
sand-shell  (Lampsilis  anodontoides)  so  called 
from  its  bright  yellowish  brown  exterior. 
Another  kind,  the  black  sand-shell  (Lampsilis 
rectus)  has  a  black  epidermis.  A  smaller 
variety,  less  abundant  now  than  formerly,  is 
the  slough  sand-shell  (Lampsilis  fallaciosus) . 
These  are  generally  found  in  coves  or  the  mouths 
of  rivulets. 

The  deer-horn  or  buckhorn  (Tritigonia  ver- 
rucosa)  is  a  large  variety,  sometimes  attaining 
a  length  of  nine  inches  in  the  Iowa  river,  though 
the  average  in  the  Mississippi  is  about  five 
inches.  The  shell,  as  the  name  indicates,  has 

267 


THE   PEARL 

a  rough,  warty  exterior.  The  supply  is  small 
and  uncertain. 

Another  rare  species  is  the  butterfly  (Plagiola 
securis).  It  is  a  small,  flat,  thick  shell  of  fine 
color,  and  the  valves  are  butterfly  in  shape 
with  a  reddish-brown  epidermis  striped  by 
darker  radiating  lines.  It  is  abundant  only  in 
the  Illinois  and  Ohio  rivers. 

The  hatchet-back,  hackle-back,  or  heel- 
splitter  (Symphynota  complanata),  is  a  large 
black  mussel  having  a  thin  sharp-edged  shell, 
one  valve-edge  projecting.  It  yields  few  pearls 
though  fine  specimens  are  occasionally  found  in 
this  variety. 

The  blue-point  (Quadrula  undulata)  has  a 
large,  thick  shell,  with  ridges  on  the  exterior, 
curving  round  the  umbones  and  extending  to 
the  edge.  Like  the  black-edge  meleagrina,  the 
nacre  at  the  edge  is  discolored.  In  this  case  by 
a  bluish  or  purplish  tint. 

Some  idea  of  the  enormous  quantities  of 
mussels  contained  in  some  of  these  beds  in  our 
western  rivers  may  be  gained  from  the  reports 
of  the  fisheries  in  the  first  years  of  their  dis- 
covery. Ten  thousand  tons  of  shells  were 
268 


PEARL  FISHERIES 

taken  in  three  years  near  New  Boston,  111., 
from  one  bed.  Reckoned  by  the  usual  average 
this  would  mean  not  less  than  100,000,000 
shells.  In  some  beds,  the  mussels  have  been 
found  several  feet  deep,  the  bottom  layers  being 
dead. 

Notwithstanding  the  enormous  numbers, 
these  beds  are  often  completely  exhausted  in 
a  few  seasons.  When  the  beds  are  first  dis- 
covered, men  will  take  as  much  as  1500  to 
2000  pounds  of  shell  each,  in  a  day's  fishing. 
In  one  hundred  pounds  of  shells  as  they  are 
taken,  the  average  number  of  valves  or  half 
shells  will  be,  nigger-heads,  about  one  thousand ; 
sand-shells,  nine  hundred;  muckets,  eight 
hundred,  which  would  be  an  average  of  nine 
thousand  mussels  per  ton. 

The  meat  in  a  ton  of  nigger-heads  weighs 
over  three  hundred  pounds.  This  is  usually 
removed  by  the  fishermen  by  boiling  the 
mussels  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  in  crude  sheet 
iron  tanks  when  the  shells  open  and  the  fleshy 
part  falls  out  or  may  be  easily  removed  by 
hand.  To  show  how  little  the  pearls  they  may 
contain  enter  into  the  calculations  of  these 

269 


THE   PEARL 

fishermen,  it  may  be  stated  here  that  the  shell- 
buyers  pay  about  twenty-five  per  cent,  less 
for  the  mussels  as  taken  from  the  river  than 
they  do  for  the  shells  when  cleaned. 

On  the  Californian  coast  when  the  divers 
worked  independently,  they  preferred  to  sell 
the  oysters  unopened.  They  received  about 
$4.50  per  thousand  on  an  average  for  the  shells 
and  double  for  the  oysters  complete. 

The  fishing  season  for  pearlers  is  from  August 
to  December.  The  large  operations  for  shell, 
in  the  early  days  of  the  industry,  were  confined 
to  the  same  period,  but  of  late,  fishing  is  carried 
on  throughout  the  year,  immense  quantities 
being  taken  through  the  ice.  The  shells  are 
better  in  cold  weather,  being  less  brittle  than 
when  exposed  in  the  boats  during  warm  weather. 
Fishing  through  the  ice  is  very  wasteful  how- 
ever, as  the  undersized,  which  are  dropped  back 
from  the  scoops  and  rakes  in  the  summer,  when 
thrown  out  on  the  ice  are  allowed  to  remain 
there  and  die. 

The  price  of  shells  varies  considerably  from 
season  to  season.  An  average  price  for  nigger- 
heads  is  about  ten  dollars  per  ton;  sand-shells 
270 


PEARL   FISHERIES 

bring  about  twice  as  much,  muckets  half  that 
price,  and  the  other  varieties  together  will 
average  about  twenty-five  per  cent,  more  than 
nigger-heads,  though  among  these  the  deer- 
horn  is  worth  about  four  times  as  much  as  the 
nigger-head. 

In  the  first  six  months  of  1898  nearly  four 
thousand  tons  of  mussel  shells  were  sold  by 
mussel  fishermen  on  the  Mississippi.  They 
brought  about  thirty-nine  thousand  dollars, 
94  per  cent,  of  these  were  nigger-heads. 

The  spawning  time  of  the  unio  varies  with 
different  species.  In  the  central  Mississippi 
basin  it  is  normally  February,  March  and  April 
for  nigger-head,  and  summer  and  early  fall  for 
the  mucket  and  sand-shell. 

The  unio  is  a  slow  growing  animal.  Under 
normal  conditions  it  takes  ten  years  for  a  nigger- 
head  to  reach  a  size  of  three  inches;  fifteen 
to  eighteen  years  to  attain  a  shell  diameter  of 
4^  inches.  This  corresponds  very  closely  with 
the  life  of  the  meleagrina,  though  the  shell  of 
the  latter  ceases  to  grow  in  size  at  about  eight 
or  ten  years.  After  that  it  continues  to  lay  on 
thickness  up  to  eighteen  or  twenty  years. 

271 


THE  PEARL 

Although  the  discoveries  so  far  in  Africa  are 
unimportant,  it  is  possible,  now  that  the  unio 
is  known  to  exist  there,  that  the  streams  of 
that  wonderful  land  of  precious  things  may 
add  a  companion  gem  to  the  vast  natural 
hoards  there  of  the  diamond.  In  two  years 
succeeding  his  first  find,  the  discoverer  secured 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pearls  at  an  average  of 
one  pearl  to  eight  hundred  shells. 

Authorities  tell  us  that  the  nucleus  of  a 
mussel-pearl  is  usually  the  larva  of  a  distoma. 
Nuclei  of  pearls  vary  according  to  the  circum- 
stances surrounding  the  beds  of  the  shell-fish 
and  those  circumstances  have  much  to  do  with 
the  occurrence  of  the  pearl. 


272 


PRICE 


PRICE 

Value,  except  in  things  which  are  constant 
and  constantly  changing  hands,  is  a  matter  of 
opinion.  Price  is  the  expression  of  that  opin- 
ion in  money  terms.  Except  in  a  few  staple 
sizes  and  qualities,  pearls  are  affected  by 
so  many  details  which  determine  their  value 
that  it  is  difficult  to  formulate  rules  to  cor- 
respond and  establish  a  base  by  which  all  may 
be  judged. 

Shape,  size,  color,  luster,  and  perfection, 
afford  a  multiplicity  of  combinations  sufficient 
to  puzzle  the  judgment  of  the  most  expert,  and 
when  to  this  is  added  the  fact  that  there  is  no 
other  one  like  the  piece  to  be  valued  so  as  to 
gauge  opinion,  there  remains  but  one  finality, 
the  agreement  between  buyer  and  seller  on  a 
price. 

Disregarding  the  fluctuations  of  price  occa- 
sioned by  temporary  influences  and  the  varia- 
tions arising  from  local  causes,  this  chapter  is 
intended  to  give  information  of  the  price  of 

275 


THE  PEARL 

pearls  in  the  United  States  to  retail  dealers, 
and  an  idea  of  the  relative  value  of  different 
qualities  and  shapes. 

First  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  price 
of  pearls  is  reckoned  by  the  square  of  the  weight, 
with  the  pearl-grain,  \  carat,  as  the  unit.  Given 
the  price  at  $3.00  per  grain  base  or  multiple, 
a  half  grain  pearl  would  be  half  of  $3.00  or 
$1.50  per  grain  flat,  or  seventy-five  cents  for 
the  pearl.  At  the  same  price  a  one  grain  pearl 
would  be  at  $3.00  per  grain  multiple,  $3.00 
per  grain  flat  and  $3.00  for  the  pearl.  Upon 
the  same  basis  a  two  grain  pearl  would  be  twice 
three  are  six,  $6.00  per  grain  flat  and  twice  six 
are  twelve,  $12.00  for  the  pearl.  Or  it  may  be 
stated  thus:  multiply  the  grain  number  by 
itself  and  the  product  by  the  base  price,  as  a 
6  gr.  pearl  at  $3.00  base,  6  x  6—36  x  3=108 
dollars,  the  price  of  the  pearl.  This  rule  ap- 
plies to  all  but  rejections  or  those  too 
poor  for  classification,  and  extraordinary  pieces 
which  by  their  extreme  rarity  pass  beyond 
the  governance  of  rules.  The  sign  used  in 
quoting  a  multiple  price  is  a  square.  This 
placed  after  a  price  quoted  means  that  it  is 
276 


PRICE 

the  multiple  price  per  grain,  not  the  flat  grain 
price. 

The  price  of  pearls  has  increased  even  more 
than  that  of  diamonds  in  the  last  fifteen  years. 
In  common  with  many  other  things  it  has  risen 
with  the  rapid  increase  of  wealth  and  the 
tremendous  additions  to  the  world's  stock  of 
the  standard  or  measure  of  values, — gold.  Be- 
yond this,  the  demand  for  pearls,  owing  to  the 
adoption  of  them  as  a  fashion  in  the  United 
States  where  a  large  proportion  of  the  world's 
wealth  is  being  created,  has  been  stimulated  to 
such  a  degree  that  the  price  of  them  has  ad- 
vanced in  a  greater  ratio  to  the  depreciation  of 
gold  and  other  forms  of  wealth  than  most 
commodities. 

Twenty  years  ago  good  round  Indian  pearls 
up  to  five  grains  could  be  bought  for  $1.50 
base;  to-day  such  pearls  would  cost  $4.50  base 
and  whereas  in  those  days  pieces  of  extraordi- 
nary luster  were  allowed  to  remain  in  the  parcels 
and  were  sold  at  the  same  rate  with  the  others, 
they  are  now  culled  from  the  lots  and  held  for 
extraordinary  prices.  Size  also  now  counts 
beyond  the  multiple  of  the  square.  The  quality 

277 


THE   PEARL 

held  at  $4.50  base  up  to  five  grains  costs  $6.00 
above  that  size,  and  at  ten  grains  will  bring 
$8.00  and  over. 

The  yield  of  fine  white  pearls  in  sizes  over  ten 
grains  is  not  large  and  as  there  has  been  and  is 
a  steady  demand  for  large  pearls  for  the  centres 
of  necklaces,  sizes  from  ten  to  fifteen  grains 
bring  from  eight  to  eleven  dollars  multiple 
when  matched.  Egg  and  pear-shaped  pearls 
of  the  same  grade,  from  five  grains  down,  are 
worth  twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent,  less  than 
round  pearls;  between  five  and  ten  grains  ten 
to  fifteen  per  cent,  less,  and  as  they  near 
fifteen  grains  and  over  the  pear-shape  become 
of  equal  value  with  the  round. 

Imperfections  which  can  be  hidden  by  the 
setting  decrease  the  price  twenty  to  thirty 
per  cent.,  and  there  is  about  the  same  difference 
between  button  and  round  pearls,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  plane.  The  difference  is  still 
greater  in  the  larger  sizes.  A  yellow  color 
reduces  the  value  in  the  market  from  fifteen  to 
fifty  per  cent,  according  to  the  depth  and 
quality  of  the  tint.  The  so-called  blue  pearls, 
which  are  of  a  dark  leaden  white,  are  worth 
278 


PRICE 

about  half  as  much  as  ordinary  white,  and 
about  one-third  the  price  of  fine  white  Indians. 
These  blue  pearls  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  deep  gray,  slate,  or  black  pearls,  included 
in  the  general  term  black  pearls,  as  the  latter 
frequently  command  fancy  prices. 

Salt-water  pearls  taken  from  the  smaller 
varieties  of  the  avicula  of  some  seas,  though 
of  the  same  grade  in  the  qualities  of  color, 
luster  and  shape,  are  nevertheless  worth  less 
than  Indian  pearls,  because  they  lack  a  certain 
quality  of  texture  which  the  latter,  together 
with  those  of  some  other  waters,  possess  to  an 
eminent  degree. 

American  fresh-water  pearls  have  been  and 
are  lower  in  price  than  Orientals.  They  have 
however  commanded  much  better  prices  of 
late  than  formerly  and  are  increasing  in  value. 
At  present  they  bring  about  one-third  less  than 
corresponding  qualities  from  the  seas.  There 
is  a  greater  difference  in  the  price  of  baroques. 
Fine  Venezuelan  baroques  from  a  half  to  seven 
or  eight  grains  are  worth  now  thirty-five  to 
fifty  cents  base. 

Some  of  these  when  mounted  appear  like 
279 


THE  PEARL 

round  or  pear-shape  pearls  and  are  in  good 
demand.  Larger  pieces  can  rarely  be  made  to 
appear  other  than  baroque  and  do  not  there- 
fore command  as  good  figures.  They  seldom 
bring  more  than  five  dollars  per  grain  flat,  in 
sizes  from  ten  to  twenty  grains.  Fresh- water 
pearls  likewise  fetch  better  prices  reckoned  by 
the  multiple  in  the  smaller  sizes,  though  they 
are  usually  quoted  by  the  grain  flat  at  five  to 
twenty-five  cents  under  ten  grains,  and  twenty- 
five  cents  to  three  dollars  per  grain  in  larger 
sizes. 

Iridescent,  finely  tinted,  very  lustrous,  straw- 
berry, and  rose  baroques  of  large  size,  are  worth 
five  dollars  per  grain  and  very  exceptional 
pieces  bring  even  more.  Slugs,  or  ordinary 
baroques,  are  sold  all  the  way  from  six  dollars 
an  ounce  to  ten  cents  per  grain.  Good  wing- 
pearls  can  be  bought  at  one  to  five  cents  per 
grain;  small  wings  and  rejections  are  sold  by 
the  ounce. 

Perfectly  round  fresh-water  pearls  of  good 
quality  and  even  skin  are  rare  and  prices  are 
advancing  steadily.  Good  buttons  have  ad- 
vanced fully  twenty-five  per  cent,  in  the  last 
280 


PRICE 

year.  Fine  fancies  such  as  were  found  at  one 
time  in  the  Sugar  River,  Wisconsin,  since  the 
fisheries  there  have  been  exhausted,  are  scarce 
and  high. 

The  low  prices  paid  by  button  manufacturers 
for  mussel  shells  for  the  mother-of-pearl  in 
them  during  the  past  year,  has  been  one  of  the 
chief  factors  in  reducing  the  quantity  of  pearls 
found  and  the  consequent  increase  of  price. 
It  seldom  pays  the  fisher  to  gather  mussels  for 
pearls  only;  it  is  the  steady  returns  from  the 
sale  of  the  shells  which  ensures  an  adequate 
reward  for  his  labors.  Shells  that  once  brought 
twenty  dollars  per  ton  fell  during  the  early  part 
of  1905  to  a  third  of  that  amount  and  later 
went  as  low  as  two  dollars  and  a  half.  They  are 
now  going  up  again. 

Many  pearls  are  seriously  injured  by  the 
practice  of  fishers  who  rely  upon  the  sale  of 
the  shells  for  their  returns,  of  throwing  the 
mussels  into  vats  of  hot  water  to  open  them. 
The  pearls  released  from  the  shells  fall  to  the 
bottom  and  getting  too  near  the  hot  iron  are 
killed,  which  means  that  the  luster  is  partially 
or  wholly  destroyed. 

281 


THE   PEARL 

Dredging  is  now  quite  common  and  is  doing 
much  to  deplete  the  mussel-beds  of  the  west. 
When  one  bed  is  completely  divested  of  shells, 
the  clammer  moves  on  to  another  and  repeats 
the  process,  so  that  the  supply  of  fresh-water 
pearls  is  coming  to  depend  on  the  constant 
discovery  of  new  mussel-beds.  Unless  legis- 
lation regulates  the  industry  the  American 
supply  will  soon  cease. 

The  cheapest  fresh-water  pearls  in  the  market 
to-day  are  the  finest.  The  pearlers  along  the 
streams  of  the  west  and  south  will  no  longer 
part  with  the  pearls  they  find  to  the  speculators 
at  the  old  time  prices.  In  fact  they  generally 
want  much  more  than  they  are  worth  and 
often  get  more  than  the  speculator  can  afford 
to  pay  to  ensure  a  profit  when  he  comes  to  sell 
them  in  the  business  centres. 

But  these  fishers  know  little  of  the  merits 
and  value  of  the  finer  qualities.  They  do  not 
yet  realize  the  great  difference  in  value  which 
accrues  as  the  pearl  exceeds  the  average  of 
luster,  color,  or  perfection,  consequently  the 
speculator  can  often  buy  a  very  fine  pearl  for 
little  more  than  he  would  have  to  pay  for  an 

282 


THE    MARCHIONESS    OF    LONDONDERRY 


PRICE 

ordinary  pearl  and  though  he  knows  that  the 
piece  is  worth  much  more  than  he  has  paid,  and 
tries  to  get  as  nearly  what  it  is  worth  as  he  can, 
both  his  judgment  and  disposition  to  sell  are 
affected  by  the  low  price  he  has  paid  and  the 
chances  are  that  he  too  in  turn  will  sell  it  at 
much  less  than  its  relative  value  as  compared 
with  the  ordinary  market  price  of  poor  or 
medium  quality  goods. 

This  condition  will  gradually  change.  As  in 
the  past  the  fisher  learned  more  and  more  of  the 
market  value  of  ordinary  pearls,  so  also  he  will 
learn  to  know  the  price  of  exceptional  pieces  and 
to  know  them  when  he  has  them.  Even  now, 
speculators  hold  fine  large  pearls  at  high  prices 
because  of  the  ready  sale  for  them  in  Europe. 

It  is  difficult  to  compare  the  price  of  pearls 
in  ancient  times  with  that  of  to-day.  We  make 
much  finer  and  closer  assortments  and  grada- 
tions of  quality  and  the  business  now  is  on  a 
more  distinctly  commercial  basis.  People 
generally  are  better  informed  and  more  critical ; 
they  are  not  influenced  by  wonder,  sentiment, 
superstition  and  the  "Arabian  Nights"  atmos- 
phere, as  much  as  formerly. 

283 


THE  PEARL 

The  Orient  is  not  as  strange  and  far  away  as 
it  was.  In  the  old  times,  jewellers  could  and 
undoubtedly  did  take  advantage  of  the  awe 
with  which  things  from  the  mysterious  East 
were  regarded,  and  of  the  general  ignorance,  to 
obtain  large  sums  for  very  ordinary  if  not  infer- 
ior gems.  Even  in  these  days,  many  are 
influenced  more  by  the  source  from  whence  they 
come  than  by  a  critical  knowledge  of  the  gems 
they  buy.  Some,  who  would  not  buy  the  most 
beautiful  fresh-water  pearl,  will  pay  an  exorbi- 
tant price  for  one  poorer  and  less  valuable 
because  it  is  oriental.  La  Pellegrina  in  the  hands 
of  an  obscure  dealer  would  be  passed  unnoticed 
by  many  who  would  be  enraptured  by  a  'more 

ordinary   gem   from   a  jeweller   or   person   of 

• 
renown. 

It  is  presumable  therefore  that  prejudice  was 
more  influential  when  ignorance  prevailed -to  a 
greater  extent  than  now.  John  Spruce  of 
Edinburgh  in  1705  complained  that  he  could 
not  sell  a  necklace  or  pendant  of  fine  Scotch 
pearls  in  Scotland.  He  says  "the  generality 
seek  for  oriental  pearls  because  farther  fetched," 
and  continues:  "At  this  very  day  I  can  show 


PRICE 

some  of  our  own  Scots  pearls  as  fine,  more  hard 
and  transparent  than  any  oriental.  It  is  true 
that  the  oriental  can  be  easier  matched, 
because  they  are  all  of  a  yellow  water,  yet 
foreigners  covet  Scots  pearls." 

The  price  in  those  days  was  regulated  by 
general  appearance  and  loosely  with  regard  to 
weight,  rather  than  by  definite  assortment 
and  the  exact  system  of  reckoning  by  the 
multiple  of  the  weight  as  now,  for  he  says, 
"If  a  Scotch  pearl  be  of  a  fine  transparent 
color  and  perfectly  round  and  of  any  great 
bigness,  it  may  be  worth  15  to  50  rix  dollars, 
yea  I  have  given  100  rix  dollars  (about  $82.00 
U.  S.)  for  one." 

In  1862,  Scotch  pearls  sold  for  about  seventy- 
five  cents  to  ten  or  twelve  dollars  each,  an 
extraordinary  piece  bringing  occasionally  as 
much  as  twenty-five  dollars,  but  after  they  were 
brought  to  the  favorable  notice  of  persons  of 
distinction  and  it  was  known  that  Queen 
Victoria  had  bought  one  for  one  hundred  and 
ten  dollars,  the  price  of  them  quadrupled.  In 
the  time  of  Charles  II.  of  England  an  Irish  pearl 
weighing  144  grains  was  valued  at  two  hundred 
285 


THE   PEARL 

dollars.  In  London  during  the  early  part  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  pearls  from  Panama  of 
good  size  and  quality  brought  about  four 
dollars  per  grain. 

About  1865,  fine  oriental  pearls  were  sold  in 
London  for  $1.25  to  $1.50  per  grain  in  sizes  up 
to  three  grains.  Over  that  the  price  increased 
gradually  with  the  size  so  that  five  grainers  were 
worth  about  $2.50  per  grain;  ten  grainers,  $5.50 
per  grain;  twenty  grainers  $13.00  per  grain  and 
thirty  grainers  about  $17.00  per  grain.  If  their 
fine  grade  equalled  ours,  there  has  been  a 
remarkable  advance  in  the  last  forty  years,  as 
fine  oriental  round  pearls  of  thirty  grains  to-day, 
are  worth  in  the  United  States  $240.00  per 
grain  flat. 

Up  to  this  time  and  after,  prices  were  quoted 
very  generally  by  the  carat.  Later,  the  method 
of  reckoning  by  the  square  or  multiple  became 
more  general,  and  the  price  went  to  about  two 
dollars  per  carat,  in  London,  or  fifty  cents  per 
grain  base  for  ordinary  sizes,  the  larger  ones 
being  valued  by  the  piece  according  to  the 
individual  rarity  and  particular  qualities,  as 
before.  At  the  Navigator's  islands  in  1858, 

286 


PRICE 

fine  round  pearls  of  one  to  two  grains  were 
valued  at  about  fifty  cents  per  grain,  the  price 
increasing  until  those  of  twenty  grains  were 
considered  worth  twenty  dollars  per  grain. 
Second  class  pearls  under  one  grain,  averaging 
half  a  grain,  were  sold  for  about  five  cents  a 
grain.  The  same  grade  about  nine  grains 
average,  were  worth  about  sixty-five  cents  per 
grain. 

A  third  and  fourth  grade  brought  about 
twenty-five  and  fifty  per  cent,  less  respectively. 
These  prices,  compared  with  those  of  London,  in- 
dicate that  fine,  large,  round  pearls  commanded 
better  prices  then  in  the  East  than  they  did 
in  Europe.  Seed  pearls  sold  at  Tahiti  for  ten 
to  fifteen  dollars  per  pound.  The  island  of 
Labuan,  a  British  possession  in  the  East  Indian 
archipelago,  shipped  pearls  to  Singapore  in 
the  sixties  at  an  average  price  of  ten  to  fifteen 
cents  per  grain.  In  1871,  35  ounces  of  pearls 
shipped  from  Guayaquil  were  valued  at  $100.00 
per  ounce. 

As  in  former  times,  at  many  places  where  the 
fishing  is  done  by  independent  naked  divers, 
especially  among  the  remote  islands  of  the 
287 


THE   PEARL 

South  Sea,  there  is  no  grading  of  pearls  or 
definite  ideas  of  value.  The  natives  dispose  of 
their  pearls,  as  they  are  able,  to  traders,  often 
for  a  very  small  price.  It  is  so  to-day  at  many 
points  in  the  Sulu  archipelago  from  Mindanao 
to  the  Tawi  Tawi  islands.  The  smaller  estab- 
lished fisheries  of  the  seas  east  of  China  assort 
roughly  and  sell  in  bulk  to  buyers  from  neigh- 
boring trading  centers. 

The  output  of  the  large  fisheries  is  practically 
controlled  by  the  great  merchants  of  neighbor- 
ing cities  who  know  the  methods  and  intri- 
cacies peculiar  to  the  localities.  For  instance, 
the  pearls  of  Ceylon  go  to  Madras,  and  Bom- 
bay handles  the  bulk  of  those  from  the 
Arabian  coast  and  the  Red  Sea.  Lower 
California  pearls  are  marketed  chiefly  at  La 
Paz.  Those  from  Venezuela  are  shipped  princi- 
pally to  Paris  and  definite  figures  cannot  be 
obtained.  A  few  are  brought  to  the  United 
States  direct  from  Venezuela,  chiefly  by  Syrians 
who  barter  for  them  with  the  independent 
divers.  These  traders  have  no  knowledge  of 
market  rates  for  assorted  goods  but  sell  them  in 
mixed  lots  for  as  much  as  they  can  get. 
288 


PRICE 

The  price  of  pearls  of  the  first  grade,  in 
Ceylon  in  1904,  weighing  four  grains  and  up- 
wards each,  was  about  $5.00  per  grain.  At 
Macassar,  prices  for  the  irregular  shaped  pearls 
of  the  Dutch  Indies  ranged  from  twenty-five 
cents  to  $1.25  per  grain  base  according  to 
quality. 

At  the  Ceylon  fisheries,  two-thirds  of  the 
oysters  taken  have  been  the  government's 
share.  These  were  auctioned  off  daily.  The 
prices  varied  considerably,  not  only  from  fishing 
to  fishing,  but  daily  during  the  season.  If  the 
oysters  sold  one  day,  yielded  well,  prices  went 
up  and  vice  versa.  In  1860,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Tinnevelly  fishery,  they  realized  Rs  15. 
($7.50)  per  thousand  and  rose  later  to  Rs  40. 
($20.00).  In  1 86 1  on  the  contrary  they  sold 
in  the  early  part  of  the  season  for  $35.00  to 
$40.00  and  fell  to  $20.00,  at  one  time  touching 
$8.50. 

In  1871,  the  Tuticorin  catch  brought  a  little 
over  $40.00  per  thousand  average.  The  aver- 
age price  paid  in  1858  at  the  Ceylon  fisheries 
was  a  little  less  than  ten  dollars,  and  as  the 
pearl  yield  was  good,  the  speculators  made 
19  289 


THE   PEARL 

enormous  profits.  In  consequence,  the  average 
of  1859  went  up  to  $22.50,  the  oysters  bringing 
at  one  time  during  the  season  as  much  as 
$42.00;  1860  realized  an  average  of  $66.00,  the 
highest  price  paid  during  the  season  being 
$90.00. 

The  fishery  of  1863  though  it  realized  more 
for  the  government  on  account  of  the  large 
catch,  brought  an  average  of  $33.50  per  thou- 
sand only.  In  1874  the  oysters  brought  about 
$40.00  per  thousand:  Of  late  years  the  average 
has  been  less,  ranging  from  $12.00  to  $14.00 
though  at  times  double  that  price  has  been 
paid. 

The  pearls  found  in  the  oysters  came  quickly 
into  the  hands  of  Hindu  merchants  who  assorted 
them  and  shipped  a  large  part  to  Europe  at 
prices  much  less  than  those  which  rule  in  the 
United  States,  though  they  usually  macje  a 
good  profit  over  cost.  With  the  leasing  of  the 
Ceylon  fisheries  much  of  this  speculative 
business  will  undoubtedly  be  eliminated  and 
the  pearls  marketed  at  more  regular-  prices. 

At  fisheries  where  mother-of-pearl  is  the  chief 
factor  of  the  industry,  it  is  difficult  to  get 
290 


PRICE 

statistics  of  the  number  or  value  of  the  pearls 
found,  but  in  a  general  way  India  governs  the 
market.  Prices  in  other  sections  adjust  them- 
selves to  Madras  and  Bombay  with  such 
modifications  as  quality  and  place  would 
naturally  make. 

Mother-of-pearl  shell  varies  in  price  from 
$250.00  to  $500.00  per  ton  for  Mexican  to 
$700.00  to  $800.00  per  ton  for  the  white  shell 
of  Australia  and  the  South  Sea. 


291 


IMITATION 
AND  DOCTORED  PEARLS 


IMITATION 
AND  DOCTORED   PEARLS 

In  common  with  all  other  precious  things, 
pearls  have  been  long  imitated.  The  early 
method  of  making  imitation  or  "  mock-pearls  " 
as  they  were  called,  was  to  cut  them  out  of  the 
mother-of-pearl  and  polish  them.  Another 
crude  way  was  to  make  solid  beads  of  glass 
containing  various  ingredients  which  gave  them 
a  slight  similarity  to  the  nacreous  luster  of  the 
pearl.  Beads  of  gypsum  or  alabaster  were 
soaked  in  oil  and  coated  with  wax.  The  scales 
of  the  bleak  fish  dissolved  in  liquid  ammonia  or 
vinegar,  was  also  used  for  covering  beads,  the 
solution  imparting  a  somewhat  pearly  appear- 
ance. 

To  coat  one  thousand  ounces  of  glass  beads, 
a  French  manufacturer  used  three  ounces  of 
fish-scales,  one  ounce  white  wax,  one  ounce 
pulverized  alabaster  and  half  an  ounce  fine 
parchment  glue.  Another  made  beads  of  opal 
glass  which  he  covered  with  several  layers  of 

295 


THE   PEARL 

isinglass ;  over  this  was  laid  another  coating  of 
a  mixture  of  spirits  of  turpentine  and  copal, 
and  a  fat  oil  to  exclude  moisture  from  the 
isinglass,  following  it  with  a  thin  layer  of  tinted 
enamel  to  give  resemblance  to  the  orient  of  the 
pearl. 

Some  claimed  that  the  best  artificial  pearls 
were  made  from  pulverized  pearls.  Seed  pearls 
or  valueless  baroques  were  ground  to  a  fine 
powder,  soaked  in  lemon-juice  or  vinegar  and 
mixed  with  gum  tragacanth.  The  paste  after 
being  shaped  and  partially  dried,  was  then 
enclosed  in  a  loaf  and  baked  in  an  oven.  The 
luster  was  obtained  by  a  final  coating  of  fish- 
scale  solution.  A  lighter  and  better  imitation 
was  made  by  blowing  hollow  glass  beads.  The 
inside  surface  was  covered  with  a  preparation 
from  the  fish-scales,  after  which  the  bead  was 
filled  with  wax.  This  method  continues  in  use 
to-day. 

The  fish-scale  solution  used  is  a  guanine, 
the  mucus  which  lubricates  the  scales  of  the 
bleak  fish  (alburnus  lucidus).  The  white  scales 
of  the  fish  are  carefully  scraped  into  a  horse-hair 
sieve  over  a  shallow  tub  of  fresh  water.  The 

296 


IMITATIONS  AND   DOCTORED 

first  water  is  thrown  away.  The  scales  are  then 
washed  and  pressed.  The  mucus  sinks  to  the 
bottom  and  is  gathered  as  an  oily  mass,  very 
brilliant  and  bluish- white.  This  is  packed  with 
ammonia  in  tin  boxes  and  sealed  for  shipment. 
It  takes  about  20,000  fish  to  make  one  pound  of 
the  mucus. 

A  cheap  imitation  pearl  is  made  of  opal  glass, 
a  bluish- white  milky  appearing  material,  to 
which  a  pearly  effect  is  given  by  treating  it 
with  fluoric  acid.  Imitation  black  pearls  are 
made  from  hematite,  but  as  they  require  careful 
finishing  to  hide  the  metallic  luster  and  are 
much  heavier  than  pearls,  they  are  seldom  used. 

The  Chinese  and  Japanese  have  been  much 
more  ingenious  in  their  methods  and  have  long 
produced,  with  enforced  aid  from  the  animal, 
imitations  which  are  in  part  real  pearl.  The 
former  insert  in  the  Chinese  pearl-mussel 
(anodonta .  herculea)  small  figures  of  Buddha 
upon  which  the  fish  proceeds  to  deposit  its 
nacre.  When  they  are  coated,  which  occurs  in 
from  one  to  two  or  three  years,  the  pearly 
figures  are  extracted  and  sold  to  the  devout. 

The  Japanese  do  more.  They  attempt  to 
297 


THE   PEARL 

produce  a  marketable  gem  and  have  so  far 
succeeded  that  a  considerable  number  have 
been  sold  of  late  in  the  United  States  and  in 
many  cases  the  public  buy  them  not  knowing 
that  they  are  an  artificial  production.  The  base 
upon  which  the  nacre  is  deposited  appears  to 
be  composed  of  a  substance  resembling  porce- 
lain shaped  like  a  low  dome  hollowed  out  on  the 
under  side  and  having  a  hole  in  the  centre  of 
the  cavity. 

As  there  is  no  nacre  on  the  under  side,  it 
must,  when  the  button  is  placed  in  the  mussel, 
be  thereby  protected  from  the  action  of  the 
fish  except  at  the  edges  where  the  nacreous 
deposit  probably  joins  it  to  the  shell  but  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  can  be  easily  detached. 
The  pearl  covered  button  is  then  fitted  to  a 
piece  of  polished  mother-of-pearl  of  the  same 
exterior  size  and  shape  and  the  two  are  neatly 
joined,  forming  a  double  low  domed  piece  of 
pearl  on  one  side,  and  mother-of-pearl  on  the 
other.  These  Japanese  pearls  as  they  are  called, 
when  mounted  in  a  setting  constructed  to  hide 
the  under  side,  have  the  appearance  of  imperfect 
spheres  of  natural  pearl. 

298 


IMITATIONS  AND   DOCTORED 

The  beds  where  the  culture  of  these  arti- 
ficial pearls  is  carried  on,  are  situated  in  the 
Bay  of  Ago,  a  few  miles  south  of  the  Temple 
of  Ise,  in  central  Japan  on  the  Pacific  side.  It 
is  a  quiet  piece  of  water,  in  a  coast  broken  by 
numerous  inlets  and  coves.  A  little  north  of 
the  centre  of  the  bay  is  a  small  island  called 
Tadoko  where  the  necessary  buildings  and  the 
men  connected  with  the  industry  are.  Around 
the  island  and  near  it,  about  1,000  acres  of 
sea  bottom  are  leased  and  used  for  the  pearl 
oyster  cultivation.  The  water  is  about  five 
to  seven  fathoms  deep. 

The  oyster  used  is  the  one  common  to  the 
waters  of  Japan,  the  Avicula  martensii  Bunker. 
In  May  and  June,  stones  weighing  six  to  eight 
pounds  are  scattered  over  the  bottom  of  the 
sheltered  shallows  which  run  up  into  the  land, 
where  the  spat  is  collected.  The  breeding 
season  is  in  July  to  August  and  in  the  latter 
month  very  tiny  shells  attached  to  the  stones 
by  the  byssus  may  be  seen  already. 

The  number  increases  as  the  season  advances 
until  in  November,  in  order  to  protect  the. 
young  fish  from  the  approaching  winter  cold, 

299 


THE   PEARL 

the  stones  lying  in  very  shallow  water  are 
removed  with  the  adhering  oysters  to  deeper 
water — over  six  feet.  After  three  years  the 
oysters  are  taken  out  and  the  nuclei  of  the 
culture  pearl  inserted.  This  done,  they  are 
spread  over  the  sea  bottom,  about  one  to  every 
square  foot  and  left  undisturbed  for  four  years. 
They  are  then  taken  out  and  opened  and  both 
the  culture  pearls  and  whatever  natural  pearls 
there  may  be,  are  harvested.  At  present, 
upwards  of  a  quarter  of  a  million  oysters  are 
treated  annually. 

Experiments  are  being  made  constantly,  in 
the  United  States  and  Europe,  to  improve  upon 
the  hollow  glass  bead  lined  with  fish-scale  but 
so  far  without  success.  The  finest  of  these 
imitate  the  natural  pearl  very  well  and  if 
finely  mounted  similar  to  the  genuine,  will 
deceive  many  while  worn.  Closer  observation 
will  reveal  the  glassy  shine  of  the  surface  and 
it  will  be  found  under  the  loup  to  contain 
numerous  small  holes.  The  specific  gravity  is 
also  less. 

One  finds  occasionally  in  lots,  a  mock-pearl 
which  has  been  cut  and  polished  from  the 

300 


IMITATIONS  AND   DOCTORED 

mother-of-pearl,  but  imitations  of  this  character 
are  scarce  and  find  no  place  in  the  market.  The 
few  made  are  found  usually  in  parcels  of  fresh- 
water pearls  and  are  put  there  by  unscrupulous 
dealers,  as  also  are  hematite  balls  and  even 
buckshot,  to  be  sold  with  the  lot  by  weight  as 
genuine  pearls. 

Since  the  price  of  pearls  has  advanced  so 
rapidly,  much  ingenuity  has  been  shown  in  the 
improvement  of  poor  pearls.  Button  pearls 
grown  to  the  shell  are  broken  out  and  the  under 
or  flat  side  carefully  scraped  and  smoothed  to 
hide  the  irregular  lines  of  juncture  between 
the  pearl  and  the  shell.  Protuberances  on  the 
surface  of  round  pearls  are  scraped  off  and  the 
broken  skin  edges  smoothed  down  so  as  to  be 
unnoticeable  to  the  naked  eye. 

In  a  like  manner  chalky  rings  and  spots  are 
toned  down.  Surface  cracks  are  filled  by  soak- 
ing the  pearls  in  a  solution  and  if  the  pearl  has 
been  pierced,  interior  cracks  can  also  be 
rendered  unobservable.  A  serious  objection  to 
pierced  pearls  arises  from  the  ease  with  which 
interior  defects  can  be  doctored  where  the  skin 
is  pierced  and  a  boring  made  through  the 
301 


THE  PEARL 

nacreous  layers.  Not  only  are  cracks  made  to 
disappear,  but  coloring  matter  can  be  intro- 
duced between  the  skins.  A  white  pearl  of 
very  poor  color  can  by  such  means  be  changed 
temporarily  into  a  black  pearl  which  will  com- 
mand a  fancy  price.  This  illegitimate  doctor- 
ing of  pearls,  whereby  defects  are  hidden  and  a 
fictitious  appearance  of  quality  imparted  to  last 
long  enough  to  make  sales  at  exorbitant  prices, 
should  not  be  confounded  with  the  legitimate 
improvement  of  pearls  which  is. now  growing  to 
be  an  industry  of  some  importance.  Experts 
are  now  able  by  careful  manipulation  to  restore 
to  some  extent  the  luster  which  has  been  lost 
by  wear  or  age. 

Formerly  this  was  done  by  skinning  the 
pearl,  i.e.,  removing  the  outer  skin  by  peeling 
it  carefully  off  with  the  edge  of  a  sharp  knife,  an 
unsatisfactory  method  at  best,  as  the  under 
skin  may  not  be  good  and  if  all  the  outer  skin 
is  not  taken  off,  the  broken  edges  of  the  layers 
composing  the  skin,  mar  the  luster  and  color 
when  the  pearl  is  worn.  Few  also  succeed  in 
removing  a  skin  without  scratching  the  new  one 
disclosed  by  its  removal. 
302 


IMITATIONS  AND   DOCTORED 

Pearls  having  a  decidedly  bad  outer  skin 
with  a  good  one  under  it,  can  only  be  materially 
improved  by  removing  the  bad  skin,  but  owing 
to  the  liability  of  finding  equally  bad  imper- 
fections underneath,  or  irregularities  which 
would  necessitate  the  removal  of  several  skins 
with  a  consequent  loss  of  size  and  weight,  pearls 
with  minor  imperfections  or  lack  of  luster  are 
now  slowly  rubbed  between  the  fingers,  the 
abrasion  being  assisted  by  various  substances 
which  differ  with  the  judgment  and  experience 
of  the  operator,  the  preparation  being  in  all 
cases  kept  secret  by  the  expert  using  it.  Many 
fine  pearls  which  have  lost  their  pristine  luster 
are  now  considerably  improved  by  this  method, 
and  without  the  dangers  involved  and  the 
necessary  loss  of  weight,  consequent  on  peeling. 

Large  numbers  of  poor  or  imperfect  pearls 
are  scraped  or  otherwise  doctored  by  the  traders 
and  speculators  at  the  fisheries.  These  men 
acquire  such  pearls  at  a  slight  cost,  and  by 
various  methods  fix  them  so  that  by  mixing 
them  in  lots  with  good  pearls,  they  often  make 
large  profits.  They  also  mix  in  many  cracked 
pearls.  This  is  done  more  often  at  Margarita 

303 


THE  PEARL 

and  the  other  Venezuelan  fisheries  where  the 
proportion  of  cracked  pearls  is  greater  than  in 
the  Indian  and  South  Sea  fisheries. 

The  skins  of  a  pearl  may  also  be  removed  by 
the  application  of  weak  acids,  but  this  method 
requires  careful  and  expert  handling  or  the 
acid  will  act  irregularly  and  leave  the  surface, 
if  improved  in  luster,  uneven  and  pitted. 

Few  important  fresh-water  baroques  and 
irregular  pearls  leave  the  west  without  receiving 
the  attention  of  the  speculators  through  whose 
hands  they  pass,  and  the  scraping  is  often  very 
roughly  done.  Rough  and  discolored  projec- 
tions are  broken  or  filed  off  and  then  scraped 
over  with  a  knife  edge.  While  fresh,  the  broken 
skin  edges  left  thus  will  often  pass  unnoticed 
by  a  careless  buyer,  but  they  become  discolored 
and  dead  later.  Unless  one  buys  of  a  dealer  in 
whom  implicit  confidence  may  be  placed,  not 
alone  for  honesty  but  for  his  knowledge  of 
pearls,  it  is  better  to  examine  all  pearls  under  a 
glass  before  purchasing. 

As  many  persons  both  in  the  trade  and  out 
of  it,  are  not  sufficiently  familiar  with  pearls 
to  be  quite  sure  of  their  ability  to  detect  the 

304 


IMITATIONS  AND   DOCTORED 

genuine  from  fine  imitations,  the  following 
points  of  difference  will  be  of  service.  All 
imitation  pearls  made  of  some  solid  material 
are  heavier  than  the  genuine  and  lack  the  pearly 
characteristics  of  the  fine  imitations  even.  If 
made  of  solid  glass  without  acid  finish,  they 
are  shiny  and  too  poor  to  require  a  second  con- 
sideration, if  acid  finished  they  have  a  "  ground- 
glass"  appearance  which  is  unmistakable.  If 
made  of  other  material  of  a  vitreous  nature, 
they  are  heavier  than  pearls,  dull  in  luster  or 
without  luster,  dark  in  color  and  unmistakably 
lacking  in  pearly  characteristics.  The  only 
dangerous  imitations  are  the  Japan  culture 
pearls  and  the  hollow,  glass  bead-pearls.  The 
former  may  always  be  recognized  by  the  mother- 
of-pearl  back,  the  latter  by  various  signs. 

All  these  hollow  glass  beads,  have  one  or 
two  holes.  They  are  coated  on  the  inside  with 
fish-scale  solution  and  filled  with  wax.  Some 
are  treated  with  acid  or  sand-blasted  to  tone 
down  the  shiny,  glassy  appearing  surface,  and 
to  hide  the  blow-holes  in  the  glass.  The  effect 
is  quite  pearly,  but  the  color  is  somewhat  darker 
and  they  show  some  iridescence.  Without  the 
20  305 


THE   PEARL 

surface  treatment  they  are  more  shiny  and 
under  the  loup  one  will  discover  the  small 
blow-holes  peculiar  to  surfaces  which  have  been 
molten. 

The  rims  of  the  holes  have  a  smooth,  rounded, 
congealed  appearance,  whereas  holes  in  pearls 
have  a  rough,  square,  chalky  edge.  On  looking 
diagonally  into  the  hole  of  a  glass  bead,  the 
glass  will  appear  as  a  dark  ring  against  the  wax 
filling,  and  where  there  are  two  holes,  one  will 
almost  invariably  have  a  ring  in  the  glass,  a 
short  distance  from  and  around  it.  The  surface 
over  the  ring  is  smooth,  though  it  looks  as  if  it 
were  ridged ;  the  ring  is  in  the  glass,  not  on  it. 

These  hollow-blown  glass  pearls  are  lighter 
than  the  real  pearls  also.  There  is  one  never 
failing  test  however  which  discovers  even  the 
best  of  these  most  dangerous  imitations.  Drop 
a  small  spot  of  ink  from  the  point  of  a  pen  upon 
one,  and  hold  it  between  the  eye  and  the  light, 
when  two  spots  will  appear,  the  one  nearest  to 
the  eye  being  a  reflection  from  the  inner  wall 
of  the  glass  resting  against  the  wax,  of  the 
actual  ink  spot  on  the  surface.  The  duplicate 
spot  will  be  lighter  in  color  than  the  original. 
306 


IMITATIONS  AND   DOCTORED 

On  a  real  pearl  there  would  be  no  such  reflection, 
nor  would  it  appear  on  a  solid  bead  imitation, 
but  as  before  stated,  the  weight  of  the  latter 
betrays  them,  as  they  are  heavier  than  the  real, 
nor  do  they  look  as  pearly,  and  on  holding 
them  between  the  eye  and  light  they  do  not 
show  the  translucency  at  the  edge  of  the  cir- 
cumference peculiar  in  a  more  or  less  degree, 
to  the  gem. 


307 


FACTS  AND  FANCIES 


FACTS  AND  FANCIES 

In  ancient  days  there  was  a  belief  in  the  east 
that  at  the  full  of  the  moon  the  pearl-oyster 
rose  to  the  surface  of  the  sea  and  opened  its 
shell  to  receive  the  falling  dew-drops.  These 
congealing,  hardened  into  pearls.  Similarly, 
the  natives  of  India  believed  that  Buddha  in 
certain  months  showered  upon  the  earth,  dew- 
drops  from  heaven,  which  the  oyster,  floating 
on  the  waters  to  breathe,  received  and  held 
until  they  hardened  and  became  pearls.  These 
poetical  imaginations  of  the  Orientals  were 
carried  west  with  the  pearls.  Poets  embodied 
them  in  verse.  Prose  writers,  losing  the  poetry 
of  the  fable,  trimmed  them  to  the  bare  state- 
ments of  impossible  facts.  An  English  writer 
early  in  the  eighteenth  century  speaking  of  the 
mussels  in  the  streams  of  northern  England  said 
that  "  gaping  eagerly  and  sucking  in  their  dewy 
streams  they  did  conceive  and  bring  forth  a 
great  plenty  of  pearls." 

Later  writers  also  attributed  the  origin  of 
311 


THE   PEARL 

pearls  to  the  reception  of  raindrops  from 
heaven  by  the  oyster,  and  one  gravely  as- 
serted that  the  fishermen  always  found  more 
pearls  after  a  season  of  heavy  rains.  He  did 
not  state  that  the  oysters  rose  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  sea  to  receive  the  raindrops, 
neither  did  he  explain  how  these  drops  from 
heaven  passed  through  the  brine  to  the  oyster 
inviolate.  Pliny  was  more  definite;  he  stated 
that  the  quality  of  the  pearls  varied  with  that 
of  the  dew  from  which  they  were  formed  and 
were  clear  or  turbid  as  it  was.  The  pearl  would 
be  pale-colored  if  the  weather  was  cloudy  when 
the  dew  fell  into  the  shell,  and  large  if  the  dew 
was  plentiful.  Thunder  during  the  reception 
of  the  drop  resulted  in  a  hollow  pearl  and  if 
lightning  caused  the  shell  to  close  suddenly  the 
pearl  would  be  small. 

The  people  of  Java  and  Borneo  had  a  belief 
which  should  have  been  yet  more  difficult  to 
acquire.  They  asserted  that  the  pearls  them- 
selves breed  and  increase  in  number  if  placed  in 
cotton.  Clusters  of  twinned  pearls  were  said 
to  be  produced  thus,  and  it  is  related  that  some 
had  the  audacity  to  sell  breeding  pearls  claim- 
312 


FACTS  AND  FANCIES 

ing  to  distinguish  the  male  from  the  female. 
This  fable  also  travelled  west  and  was  received 
by  the  credulous.  M.  S.  Lovell  in  his  "Edible 
Mollusks"  says,  "A  Spanish  lady  informed  a 
friend  of  mine  that  if  seed  pearls  were  shut  up 
in  cotton-wool  they  would  increase  either  in 
size  or  in  number." 

To  this  day  the  ancient  superstition,  or  belief, 
is  believed  not  only  by  sea-board  Malays,  but 
by  Europeans,  and  there  are  those  who  claim 
to  own  breeding  pearls  and  to  have  bred  from 
them.  The  pearls  are  placed  in  a  box  with  a 
layer  of  cotton-seed  and  a  few  grains  of  rice, 
under  and  over  them.  The  box  is  then  closed 
and  in  a  year,  if  one  account  given  is  a  fair 
statement  of  average  results,  one  may  look  for 
a  four-fold  increase,  though  the  children  will 
not  be  as  large  as  the  parents.  Some  of  them 
may  be  as  large  as  a  pin  head.  The  rice  will 
look  crumbly  and  worm-eaten. 

Another  breeder  of  pearls  says  that  the 
breeding  pearls  themselves  grow  in  size  and  if 
the  box  has  been  kept  undisturbed,  there  will 
be  found  with  them  at  the  end  of  the  year 
others  of  various  sizes,  some  almost  microscopic. 

313 


THE   PEARL 

A  year  later  these  would  be  larger.  It  is  also 
said  that  when  a  pearl  is  about  to  breed,  a 
small  black  speck  makes  its  appearance  on  the 
surface,  and  that  during  the  period  of  breeding 
the  pearl  changes  its  shape  from  a  sphere  to 
an  irregular  ovoid,  and  develops  layers  of  scales 
on  the  surface  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

After  a  time,  the  breeding  pearls  change  their 
orient  to  a  dirty  white,  the  scales  having  peeled 
off.  In  all  cases  the  rice  looks  as  though  some 
beetle  had  taken  a  circular  bite  out  of  the  end 
of  each  kernel.  Somehow  a  perusal  of  the 
accounts  of  the  remarkable  results,  leaves  the 
reader  with  a  conglomerate  impression  of 
transformed  rice  and  imagination. 

Nevertheless,  the  breeding  of  pearls  in  cotton- 
wool or  cotton-seed  with  rice,  is  asserted  and 
believed,  and  the  methods  by  which  the  wonder 
is  accomplished  may  be  had  with  great  circum- 
stance and  some  variations  from  those  who  have 
experimented.  No  greater  evidence  exists  of 
the  child-like  faith  of  people  in  the  old  times 
than  the  incredible  stories  about  precious  stones 
which  were  current  in  those  days. 

It  is  equally  wonderful  that  although  it  took 
314 


FACTS  AND  FANCIES 

centuries  to  disprove  them,  they  received 
credence  for  more  centuries  after  they  were 
shown  to  be  impossible  and  one  hears  those 
same  delightful  fairy  stories  about  angel's  tears, 
drops  of  dew  from  heaven,  raindrops,  etc.,  seri- 
ously quoted  in  this  matter-of-fact  land  to-day, 
often  by  people  who  after  a  moment's  thought 
would  become  conscious  of  their  fallacy. 

But  romance  abhors  reason,  and  though 
oysters  cannot  rise  to  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
nor  raindrops  pass  immaculate  through  the 
ocean  to  the  gaping  mollusks,  nor  the  downpour 
of  one  season  increase  the  yield  at  once  of  things 
which  are  the  growth  of  years,  there  will  long 
remain  some  who  will  refuse  the  dictum  of  the 
biologist,  that  unless  the  dews  of  heaven  and 
the  tears  of  angels  carry  much  lime  in  solution, 
the  calcareous  surroundings  of  the  oyster's  bed 
must  have  more  to  do  with  the  genesis  of  the 
pearl  than  anything  dropped  into  the  ocean  by 
the  clouds  above  it,  and  will  still  cling  to  fancy 
in  the  face  of  fact.  Meantime  the  priests  of 
Buddha  exact  charity  oysters  from  the  fishers 
of  their  faith,  that  the  god  thus  propitiated  may 
cause  the  oysters  to  yield  more  pearls. 

315 


THE  PEARL 

A  question  often  raised,  and  which  by  its 
periodical  revival  seems  to  be  a  favorite  with 
newspapers  and  magazines,  as  well  as,  to  the 

^general  public,  is,  "Do  pearls  live  and  die?" 
It  originated  probably  in  observations  of  cer- 
tain changes  that  occasionally  take  place  in 
pearls  which  could  be  readily  construed  by  a 

i speculative  or  imaginative  mind  to  mean  death. 

Sometimes  with  pearls  the  brilliancy  of  youth 
fades  and  passes  and  the  clear  skin  of  early 
days  takes  on  the  hue  of  age. 

If  now  a  ready  pen  waited  on  fancy  to  state 
the  facts  it  would  establish  an  imaginative 
theory  for  centuries,  for  like  gossip,  a  thing 
once  printed  in  a  book  will  long  pass  on  unques- 
tioned and  be  quoted  or  re-stated  many  times. 
There  are  pearls  which  for  certain  qualities 
invite  as  a  descriptive  term  the  word  live. 
There  are  others  which  by  comparison  appear, 
and  are  described,  as  dead.  Then  there  are 
others  that  lose  by  untoward  circumstances  the 
live  qualities  they  once  possessed  and  without 
dying  become  dead  pearls.  The  calcite  car- 
bonate crystals  of  which  they  are  formed  dis- 
solve in  acids  and  are  affected  to  a  certain 

316 


FACTS  AND  FANCIES 

extent  by  the  acidity  of  the  excretions  of  the 
human  skin,  sufficiently  in  some  cases  to 
destroy,  or  at  any  rate  dim,  their  luster. 

Gases  in  the  atmosphere,  sudden  changes  in 
temperature,  heat,  and  various  other  influences 
operate  more  or  less  in  the  same  direction.  The 
chemical  changes  thus  produced  might  with 
poetic  license  be  called  the  death  of  the  pearl 
and  in  a  sense  the  term  would  be  true  were  the 
whole  pearl  involved,  but  as  a  rule  these  mis- 
fortunes affect  the  outer  skin  of  the  pearl  only, 
so  if  that  dies  death  is  but  skin  deep,  a  live 
pearl  remaining  beneath  it. 

As  life  and  death  means  the  segregation  of 
particles  into  a  compact  individuality  and  their 
final  dissolution,  pearls  like  all  other  things  in 
the  restless  economy  of  nature  live  and  die,  but 
the  loss  of  some  of  its  native  charms  by  the  gem 
is  not  more  a  sign  of  death  than  the  rougher 
cuticle  of  a  weather  beaten  sailor  with  which  ex- 
posure has  replaced  the  smooth  skin  of  the  boy. 

Nevertheless  the  idea  of  death  coming  to  the 

pearl  fascinates  and  enterprising  writers  succeed 

in    frequently    placing    very    interesting    and 

readable  articles  before  the  public  which  incite 

317 


THE   PEARL 

the  wonderment  of  the  reader  and  perpetuate 
the  impression  that  this  beloved  gem  is  some 
sort  of  a  living  creature  subject  to  human 
vicissitudes.  Lately  a  story  appeared  in  current 
publications  which  told  how  the  pearls  of  a 
lady's  necklace  sickened  and  lost  their  beauty. 
Much  distressed  she  carried  them  to  the  expert 
dealer  of  whom  she  bought  them  who  gravely 
advised  her  to  let  her  maid  wear  them  where- 
upon, they  recovered  from  the  illness  and  their 
lustrous  beauty  was  restored. 

Twentieth  century  versions  of  fables  older 
than  this  era  are  common ;  shrewd  traders  and 
writers  use  them,  nor  are  they  always  careful 
to  attach  the  fable  to  the  particular  gem  to 
which,  by  right  of  ancient  usage,  it  belongs. 
The  magical  loss  of  color  in  the  presence  of 
impending  danger  to  its  wearer  is  the  ruby's 
prerogative,  but,  though  pearls  may  lose  their 
charms  by  exposure  to  heat,  gas  and  rough 
usage,  the  wily  orientals  of  remote  or  later  ages 
provided  no  traditional  recovery  more  wonder- 
ful than  the  prosaic  method  of  feeding  them  to 
fowls  and  cutting  them  out  of  the  gizzard  an 
hour  or  two  later. 

318 


FACTS  AND  FANCIES 

The  pearl  is  generally  considered  to  be  the 
emblem  of  innocence  and  purity.  A  pretty 
fashion  in  vogue  among  parents  who  can  afford 
it,  is  of  giving  a  pearl  to  each  of  their  daughters 
on  their  birthdays.  These  are  carefully  matched 
and  strung  so  that  the  string  grows  to  a  necklace 
for  maturer  years. 

Along  with  the  emblematic  idea  and  the 
fanciful  notion  of  their  origin,  there  comes  to 
us  from  the  old  days  a  superstition  concerning 
pearls  which  probably  grew  out  of  the  state- 
ment that  they  were  the  congealed  tears  of 
heaven.  It  was  supposed  that  they  brought 
tears  to  their  possessors.  The  idea  originated 
probably  about  a  thousand  years  ago  in  western 
Europe.  It  did  not  exist  in  Rome  during  the 
time  of  the  Caesars  for  the  pearl  was  then  the 
sign  of  power  and  affluence  and  was  coveted 
by  men  and  women  alike  and  it  remains  a  most 
popular  gem  in  Italy  to-day. 

This  absurdity  has  been  kept  alive  by  stories 
of  prominent  persons  in  whose  experience 
occurrences  seemed  to  confirm  the  claim.  The 
Queen  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  dreamt  that 
her  diamonds  were  turned  to  pearls  the  night 
319 


THE   PEARL 

previous  to  her  husband's  assassination  by 
Ravaillac.  The  consort  of  James  IV.  of  Scotland 
dreamt  of  pearls  three  nights  in  succession  before 
the  disastrous  battle  of  Flodden  Field  in  which 
he  lost  his  life.  These  and  similar  stories  which 
appeal  to  a  love  of  the  mysterious  and  wonder- 
ful have  been  perpetuated  by  writers  of  books, 
so  that  even  to-day  there  are  women  who 
coveting  pearls  still  fear  to  own  them. 

But  to  be  out  of  the  fashion  is  more  dreadful 
to  women  than  tears,  so  it  has  come  to  pass  that 
with  the  increasing  vogue  of  the  pearl,  less  is 
heard  of  the  superstition  and  it  is  dying,  not 
of  age  or  the  contempt  of  knowledge,  but  by  the 
potency  of  fashion. 

A  story  already  referred  to  in  these  pages, 
that  has  been  current  for  over  two  thousand 
years  during  which  time  it  has  been  mentioned 
by  almost  every  writer  about  pearls,  deserves, 
for  its  antiquity  and  absurdity,  consideration 
here.  It  is  of  Cleopatra  and  the  pearl  worth 
upwards  of  three  hundred  thousand  dollars  she 
is  said  to  have  dissolved  in  wine  to  drink  in 
costly  fashion  to  her  lover.  This  was,  of  course, 
impossible.  She  may,  with  the  help  of  the  wine 
320 


FACTS  AND  FANCIES 

have  swallowed  it  like  a  pill  or,  as  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham  did  later,  have  ground  it  to  powder 
and  mixed  it  with  the  wine  she  drank,  but  to 
dissolve  a  pearl  of  great  size  as  one  of  this 
value  would  be,  was  a  conjurer's  feat. 

The  lime  of  which  a  pearl  is  chiefly  composed 
will  dissolve  in  acid,  but  the  gem  although 
softened,  would  remain  a  pulpy  mass  held  by 
the  organic  matter  interwoven  throughout  the 
strata  of  calcium  carbonate.  Whatever  she 
really  did,  or  in  what  form  she  swallowed  the 
pearl,  if  she  did  so,  Cleopatra  and  her  pearl 
are  better  known  to-day  to  the  general  public 
than  either  of  her  Roman  lovers,  and  they  will 
probably  be  handed  down  through  many 
generations  yet  to  come. 

To  exaggerate  is  a  common^endency.  Deal- 
ers usually  place  inordinately  high  figures  on 
exceptional  gems  which  they  do  for  several 
reasons:  the  great  price  excites  wonder  and 
interest;  it  makes  a  large  profit  possible;  it 
permits  considerable  reduction  to  a  shrewd 
buyer;  and  it  pleases  the  person  who  finally 
purchases  it,  for  if  the  sale  is  made  public  the 
first  asking  price  is  usually  given  as  the  value 

21  321 


THE   PEARL 

of  the  jewel,  and  sometimes  even  that  is  ex- 
ceeded. The  buyer  prefers  to  have  it  so  because 
it  increases  the  importance  of  his  possession  in 
the  public  mind  and  paves  the  way  for  a  good 
price  if  he  too  at  any  time  should  wish  to  sell. 

One  reads  constantly  in  the  daily  papers  of 
sales  where  the  prices  given  are  enormously 
beyond  the  sums  actually  paid,  for  the  public 
like  big  figures.  Reporters  know  this  and  do 
not  fail  to  supply  the  demand.  For  instance: 
in  an  eastern  city  of  the  United  States,  a  man 
while  at  a  lunch  counter  found  a  pearl  in  the 
oyster  he  was  eating.  He  took  it  at  once  to 
a  jeweller  of  his  aquaintance  who  handed  it  to 
a  New  York  pearl-dealer  present  and  asked 
him  to  value  it. 

The  pearl  was  large  and  round  but,  like  all 
such  formations  in  the  edible  oyster,  quite 
devoid  of  the  nacre  which  constitutes  a  -true 
pearl.  The  dealer  so  informed  them,  adding 
casually,  "If  it  were  a  true  pearl  it  would  be 
worth  several  thousand  dollars."  An  evening 
paper  that  day  had  a  half  column  story  about 
it  with,  "A  pearl  worth  five  thousand  dollars 
found  in  an  oyster  at  a  lunch-counter,"  in 
322 


FACTS  AND  FANCIES 

black  head-lines,  and  the  morning  papers  of 
the  following  day  enlarged  the  story  by  adding 
fanciful  details. 

Undoubtedly  in  the  old  days  of  license  when 
immense  fortunes  were  made  not  only  in  trade 
but  by  piratical  wars,  large  prices  were  paid  by 
fortune's  favorites  for  pearls  but  it  is  extremely 
probable  that  report,  bruited  from  mouth  to 
mouth,  exaggerated  even  more  than  the  printed 
fables  of  our  times  do.  It  is  doubtful  if  the 
pearls  of  ancient  chronicles  were  as  fine,  judged 
by  the  standards  of  to-day,  as  we  imagine  or 
that  all  of  them  were  as  large  as  reported.  The 
public  were  more  ignorant  about  them  than 
now  and  also  more  credulous  and  these  invite 
exaggeration. 

Very  large  pearls  which  for  perfection  of 
shape,  luster  and  freedom  from  flaws  are  beyond 
criticism,  are  the  most  rare  of  all  gems.  The 
conditions  under  which  a  pearl  grows,  makes 
large  size,  without  the  development  of  irregu- 
larities in  the  form  and  imperfections  in  the 
skin,  almost  impossible;  and  as  they  all  grow 
in  the  same  way,  by  the  same  process,  out  of  the 
same  sources  of  supply  and  subject  to  the  same 
323 


THE  PEARL 

limitations,  we  find  big  and  little,  fine  and 
ordinary,  in  about  the  same  proportions  as 
they  occurred  thousands  of  years  ago ;  the  fish 
that  made  them  then  makes  them  now,  in  the 
same  kind  of  a  narrow  workshop  and  within 
the  bounds  of  a  life  whose  duration  has  not 
changed. 

Of  very  ancient  historic  pearls,  the  only  one 
of  which  we  have  reliable  and  expert  knowl- 
edge, is  that  of  the  Shah  of  Persia  seen  by 
Ta vernier.  This  and  La  Peregrina  are  supposed 
to  be  still  in  existence.  Of  the  very  large  pearls 
generally  mentioned  by  writers,  three  undoubt- 
edly exist,  viz.,  La  Pellegrina,  the  Beresford 
Hope  and  one  of  medium  quality  in  the  Austrian 
Crown  weighing  about  twelve  hundred  grains. 

It  is  probable  that  very  many  pearls  have 
been  found,  which  if  generally  known  would 
have  become  celebrated,  but  of  those  chroni- 
cled, most  have  passed  out  of  public  knowledge. 
It  is  probable  that  some  of  those  about  which 
much  has  been  written  were  not  as  beautiful 
as  others  which  have  escaped  notoriety.  The 
writer's  habit  of  drawing  upon  the  past  to 
illustrate  a  subject,  has  narrowed  the  literature 
324 


FACTS  AND  FANCIES 

of  pearls  to  reiterated  records  of  a  few  great 
pearls  which  one  by  one  have  been  brought  to 
public  notice  during  the  past  centuries. 

Exact  and  reliable  statements  about  gems 
are  a  modern  innovation.  In  the  old  times 
unverified  report  was  the  only  evidence  the 
general  public  had  of  them.  Crown  jewellers, 
not  always  quite  reliable,  would  make  public 
some  statements  in  general  terms  about  the 
jewels  of  a  reigning  house.  Occasionally,  as  in 
the  case  of  France,  the  state  had  the  crown 
jewels  inventoried  so  that  some  fairly  definite 
knowledge  could  be  had  of  them.  Infrequently 
a  traveller  published  his  observations,  made 
under  more  or  less  favorable  circumstances, 
of  the  jewels  of  some  oriental  prince.  Chief 
of  these  was  Ta vernier,  the  French  jeweller. 
He  not  only  had  expert  knowledge  of  gems  but 
was  able  by  recommendations  of  the  French 
court,  to  gain  such  access  to  the  jewels  of 
eastern  princes  and  dealers  that  he  could  make 
critical  examinations  of  them. 

For  various  reasons  it  is  extremely  difficult 
also  in  these  days  to  obtain  accurate  knowledge 
of  extraordinary  gems.  Dealers  for  business 
325 


THE   PEARL 

reasons  are  chary  of  information,  nor  will  they 
make  such  pieces  common  by  allowing  many  to 
see  and  handle  them.  The  buyer  is  equally 
averse  to  publicity,  so  that  exact  knowledge 
does  not  pass  far  beyond  the  dealer  and  his 
customer  as  a  rule. 

The  finest  pearl  known  is  that  in  the  Museum 
of  Zosima,  in  Moscow,  called  La  Pellegrina. 
It  is  perfectly  round  and  so  lustrous  that  it 
appears  to  be  transparent.  It  weighs  about 
112  grains  and  was  bought  of  the  captain  of  an 
LJEast  India  ship  at  Leghorn. 

The  largest  known  pearl  to-day  is  in  the 
Beresford  Hope  collection  shown  at  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  London.  It  is  two  inches 
long  and  its  circumference  is  four  and  a  half 
inches.  It  weighs  three  ounces  (1818  grains). 

Ta vernier  saw  a  pearl  in  1663  belonging  to 
the  Shah  of  Persia  which  was  valued  at  3200 
tomans  or  about  $320,000  of  our  money.  It 
was  very  perfect,  pear-shaped,  and  nearly  three 
inches  long.  It  is  believed  to  have  come  from 
the  ancient  fishery  at  Catifa  in  Arabia.  Even 
this  great  sum  was  exceeded  by  Pliny  in  his 
estimate  of  the  pearl  Cleopatra  is  said  to  have 
326 


FACTS  AND  FANCIES 

swallowed.  He  placed  the  value  of  that  at 
$375,000.  As  the  Shah's  pearl  was  about 
three  inches  long,  Cleopatra's  must  have  been 
large  enough  to  reflect  on  the  story  connected 
with  it. 

It  is  said  Julius  Caesar  presented  a  pearl 
valued  at  an  equivalent  of  nearly  $250,000  to 
Servilla  the  sister  of  Cato  of  Utica  and  mother 
of  Marcus  Junius  Brutus.  The  pearl  taken  from 
the  ear-drop  of  Caecilia  Metella  by  Clodius  to 
dissolve  and  drink  in  vinegar  was  valued  at 
$40,000. 

A  large  pear-shaped  pearl  weighing  one 
thousand  grains  was  found  at  the  island  of 
Margarita  off  the  Colombian  coast  and  given 
to  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  Some  reports  say  it  was 
obtained  in  1579;  others  give  the  date  as  1560 
and  say  it  was  presented  to  the  monarch  by 
Don  Diego  de  Temes.  It  was  valued  then  at 
something  over  $30,000,  but  Freco,  the  king's 
jeweller,  said  it  might  be  worth  twice  to  twenty 
times  as  much  for  such  a  gem  was  priceless. 
It  was  later  known  among  the  crown  jewels  as 
La  Peregrina.  Prior  to  -this,  a  companion  of 
Magellan  reported  having  seen  two  pearls  'as 
327 


THE   PEARL 

large  as  hen's  eggs  in  the  possession  of  the 
Rajah  of  Borneo. 

The  pearl  which  Sir  Thomas  Gresham  drank 
in  his  wine  to  Elizabeth  of  England  is  said  to 
have  been  worth  seventy-five  thousand  dollars. 
It  was  reported  some  years  ago  that  the  Queen 
of  the  Gambiers  owned  a  pearl  of  extraordinary 
luster,  as  large  as  a  pigeon's  egg.  There  is  a 
story  that  in  1779  a  pearl  weighing  2312  grains 
which  cost  in  India  $22,500,  was  offered  for 
sale  in  St.  Petersburg.  It  was  called  the 
sleeping  lion  because  of  its  shape  and  must 
have  been  therefore  a  baroque. 

The  republic  of  Venice  presented  a  pearl  to 
Soliman  The  Magnificent,  Sultan  of  Turkey, 
which  was  valued  at  $80,000,  and  Pope  Leo  X. 
bought  one  of  a  Venetian  jeweller  for  $70,000. 
These  sums  make  the  prices  of  to-day  seem 
insignificant  and  it  is  very  probable  that  many 
of  the  pearls  which  brought  such  large  amounts 
would  not  pass  criticism  now.  Perhaps  one 
reason  for  the  scarcity  of  large  pearls  among 
those  taken  from  the  fisheries  in  this  age  is 
that  many  of  them  are  classed  as  baroques  or 
are  not  sufficiently  fine  and  perfect  to  attract 
328 


FACTS  AND  FANCIES 

attention.     They  pass  therefore  among  those 
considered  unworthy  of  notice. 

A  brown  pearl  valued  at  $25,000  was  exhib- 
ited by  Marchisini  of  Florence  at  the  Maritime 
International  Exhibition  at  Naples  in  1871. 
Among  the  Dudley  pearls  exhibited  at  the 
London  Exhibition  of  1872  was  a  necklace  of 
exceptionally  fine  pearls  valued  at  $150,000. 
The  late  Czar  of  Russia  spent  twenty-five  years 
in  collecting  sufficient  perfect  Virgin  pearls  to 
form  a  necklace  for  his  wife.  The  Countess 
Henckel  owns  a  necklace  of  pearls  which  for 
value  and  associations  is  unrivalled.  It  is 
composed  of  three  strands,  each  at  one  time 
being  a  separate  and  historical  necklace.  One 
was  the  famous  necklace  belonging  to  the 
Empress  Eugenie  which  has  been  valued  at 
£20,000;  one  known  as  "the  necklace  of  the 
Virgin  of  Atokha,"  formerly  owned  by  a 
member  of  the  Spanish  nobility,  the  third 
belonged  to  the  ex-Queen  of  Naples.  For 
value  this  is  exceeded  by  a  single  strand 
necklace  of  large  pearls  lately  bought  by  a 
western  millionaire  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
composed  of  thirty-seven  pearls  ranging  from 
329 


THE  PEARL 

eighteen  to  fifty-two  and  three-quarter  grains 
each,  the  latter  being  the  largest  central  pearl. 
The  combined  weight  of  the  pearls  is  979! 
grains  and  the  value  is  given  at  $400,000. 

A  very  beautiful  and  nearly  perfect  pear- 
shaped  pearl  was  found  on  the  north-east  coast 
of  Australia  in  the  seventies.  It  weighed  159 
grains.  There  is  a  pearl  about  the  size  of  a 
pigeon's  egg  in  the  French  crown  jewels, valued 
at  $8,000.  Many  fine  pearls,  especially  black 
or  colored,  have  been  found  on  the  Mexican 
coast  during  the  last  twenty-five  years,  among 
them  a  black  pearl  of  162  grains  and  another  of 
1 08  grains,  a  white  pear  shape  weighing  176 
grains,  an  oval  of  128  grains,  and  three  weighing 
300  grains,  180  grains  and  372  grains  respec- 
tively, the  first  two  being  found  in  the  same 
year. 

In  the  World's  Fair  in  Paris,  1889,  seven 
black  pearls  from  this  district,  valued  at  $22,000 
were  exhibited.  These  and  others  are  described 
in  "Gems  and  Precious  Stones"  by  Kunz.  No 
fresh-water  pearl  has  attained  an  equal  notor- 
iety with  the  Queen  pearl  found  at  Notch 
Brook  near  Paterson,  New  Jersey,  in  1857.  It 
330 


FACTS  AND  FANCIES 

weighed  93  grains  and  was  sold  to  the  Empress 
Eugenie. 

Another  round  pearl  of  400  grains,  ruined 
by  boiling,  had  it  been  properly  extracted  from 
the  mussel,  would  probably  have  been  the 
finest  and  most  notable  pearl  of  this  age,  though 
another  as  large  as  a  pigeon's  egg,  dropped  from 
the  mollusk  and  lost  when  the  shell  was  opened, 
might  have  rivalled  it.  The  finder  was  wading 
in  a  stream  in  Ohio,  feeling  for  the  projecting 
edges  of  the  mussels  with  his  feet,  and  opening 
them  as  he  brought  them  to  the  surface,  as  was 
custom  there.  This,  however,  may  have  been 
like  the  fish  that  got  away. 


331 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

In  all  countries  where  woman  has  been 
enthroned  in  the  respect  as  well  as  the  affections 
of  man,  the  pearl  has  been  inseparably  connected 
with  her  in  his  mind  as  a  peculiarly  fitting 
accompaniment  to  feminine  loveliness.  In  the 
romantic  dreams  of  youth,  which  hide  betimes 
the  harsh  realism  of  life  under  a  golden  haze  of 
imagery;  where  belted  knights  and  fair  ladies 
live  and  move  unfettered,  and  all  the  impossible 
delights  of  sweet  desire  free  from  untoward 
consequences  are  reasonable;  where  invincible 
swords  have  no  thought  of  the  horrors  of 
carnage,  and  unimpeded  love  is  without  cold 
calculation  or  following  of  sorrow,  pearls 
everywhere  shimmer. 

And  when  in  his  exalted  moods  man  paints 
the  shadow  picture  of  the  goddess  of  his  life, 
he  finds  one  gem  alone  befitting  with  which  to 
deck  her,  namely,  the  pearl.  This  has  come  to 
pass  probably  because  the  ideal  qualities  of 
woman  and  the  sea  gem  are  alike,  purity  and 

335 


THE  PEARL 

modesty.  The  beauty  of  the  most  lustrous 
pearl  is  unobtrusive  and  its  quality  is  virginal. 
In  our  visions  of  the  spectral  past,  the  shades  of 
the  consorts  of  the  mighty  all  wear  them. 

Pearls  hang  pendent  from  the  ears  of  Egypt's 
voluptuous  queens,  and  Rome's  proud  matrons. 
Pearls  clasp  the  dainty  flesh  of  Moslem  houris 
and  rest  in  the  soft  folds  of  draperies  that  cling 
about  those  daughters  of  the  Orient,  the  com- 
mon mortals  of  their  day  might  not  look  upon. 
Great  pearls  hang  festooned  and  pendent  round 
the  necks  of  lightly  draped  Dianas  of  the 
warm  south  lands,  and  coiled  about  the  brown 
arms  of  the  daughters  of  the  chiefs  in  far-off 
islands  of  the  South  Seas. 

Upon  reclining  figures  in  the  ancient  palaces 
of  Persia  and  Arab  tents:  wherever  the  proud 
women  of  the  conquering  Occident  move  in 
stately  measure  across  the  high  terraces  of 
noble  placement:  in  all  dreams  of  fair  women 
and  brave  men,  are  swords  and  pearls.  And 
this  is  so  because  in  all  the  ages,  women  of 
high  position  have  loved  pearls  and  writers 
have  told  it.  In  our  old  world  so  far,  neither 
earth  nor  sea  has  yielded  ought  else  so  fit 
336 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

to  lie  in  the  bosom  of  woman,  or  to  symbolize 
her  character  and  beauty,  as  the  chaste  and 
dainty  pearl. 

This  high  atmosphere  of  precious  supremacy 
and  reverence,  which  surrounds  the  gem  now 
as  it  has  for  more  than  twenty  centuries,  is  a 
legacy  of  Rome.  The  east  loved  pearls  as 
beautiful  and  precious  trinkets;  while  Rome 
gave  to  them  imperial  honors  and  drew  around 
them  the  mystic  circle  of  patrician  favor.  And 
since  that  day,  in  every  land  where  an  aristo- 
cracy existed  or  came  into  existence,  pearls 
have  been  the  familiars  of  the  exclusive. 

This  natural  fitness  of  the  gem  for  refined 
associations  is  recognized  by  Emerson  in  his 

"Friendship."     He  says: 

» 

Thou  foolish  Hafiz!  Say!  do  churls 
Know  the  worth  of  Oman's  pearls? 
Give  the  gem  which  dims  the  moon 
To  the  noblest,  or  to  none. 

It  is  a  late  echo  of  the  scriptural  saying,  "Cast 
not  your  pearls  before  swine."  No  modern 
poet  shows  more  knowledge  of  the  nature,  or 
a  more  just  appreciation  of  the  delicate  beauty 
of  the  gem  than  Emerson.  In  his  "May  Day," 

22  337 


THE  PEARL 

speaking  of  the  tardiness  of  the  spring,  he  writes : 
"  Slow  grows  the  palm,  too  slow  the  pearl." 

Evidently  he  knew  of  the  slow  process  by 
which  the  successive  coats  of  filmy  nacre 
increase  the  size  of  the  growing  gem.  Likewise 
a  couplet  in  "  Nature"  betrays  the  poet's  obser- 
vation of  the  iridescent  nature  of  the  colors  in 
mother-of-pearl,  and  in  the  gem  occasionally 
when  those  fleeting  tints  are  added  to  the  beauty 
of  its  luster ;  the  lines  are  a  dainty  illustration : 

Illusions  like  the  tints  of  pearl, 
Or  changing  colors  of  the  sky. 

Some  of  the  great  poets,  notably  Tennyson, 
apparently  confuse  the  gem  with  its  mother-of- 
pearl,  or  refer  to  the  latter  only  when  they  speak 
of  pearl.  .  In  his  "Recollections  of  the  Arabian 
Nights,"  however,  Tennyson  in  describing  one 
of  his  beauties  evidently  refers  to  the  gem: 

And  a  brow  of  pearl 
Tressed  with  redolent  ebony. 

Writing  of  the  mermaid,  the  lines  are  more 
suggestive  of  the  shell  nacre : 

Combing  her  hair 
Under  the  sea, 
In  a  golden  curl 
With  a  comb  of  pearl. 

338 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

Again  in  a  sonnet,  he  evidently  refers  to  mother- 
of-pearl  when  he  says: 

All  night  through  archways  of  the  bridged  pearl. 
And  portals  of  pure  silver,  walks  the  moon. 

This  indiscriminate  use  of  the  gem's  name  to 
appropriate  its  pearly  characteristics  is  a  com- 
mon poetic  license.  In  Ben  Jonson's  "Hymn 
to  Diana,"  he  bids  her, 

Lay  thy  bow  of  pearl  apart. 

Sometimes  metaphor  is  worse  mixed,  as 
when  Milton  in  "Paradise  Lost"  describes  the 
waters  above  the  firmament  about  the  gate  of 
Heaven  thus : 

And  underneath  a  bright  sea  flowed 
Of  jasper,  or  of  liquid  pearl. 

In  this  poem  of  gorgeous  description,  the 
author  makes  several  allusions  to  the  gem  and 
some  of  them,  especially  those  in  his  word 
paintings  of  scenes  in  Eden,  are  poetically 
beautiful  and  true.  One  delightful  to  the  eye 
of  the  mind, 

How  from  that  sapphire  fount  the  crisped  brooks 
Rolling  on  orient  pearls  and  sands  of  gold, 

and  another  in  the  description  of  morning  in 

339 


THE  PEARL 

Eden,  equally  beautiful  though  it  takes  more 
license : 

Now  Morn,  her  rosy  steps  in  th'  eastern  clime 
Advancing,  sow'd  the  earth  with  orient  pearl. 

In  his  "  Epitaph  on  the  Marchioness  of  Win- 
chester," a  couplet  shows  that  he  was  familiar 
with  the  superstition  of  sorrow  connected  with 
them: 

And  those  pearls  of  dew  she  wears, 
Proove  to  be  presaging  tears. 

Herrick  also  associated  pearls  and  tears  though 
more  happily  as  in  "Corinna's  Maying.'5 

Besides,  the  childhood  of  the  day  has  kept, 
Against  you  come,  some  orient  pearls  unwept. 

The  same  poet  makes  charming  reference  to 
pearls  in  his  poem  entitled :  "To  Daffodils." 

Or  as  the  pearls  of  morning  dew 
Ne'er  to  be  found  again. 

Shakespeare  made  frequent  reference  to  the 
gem,  sometimes  to  illustrate  the  magnificence 
of  wealth  and  station  but  more  frequently  in 
connection  with  dew  and  tears.  Oberon  says: 

And  that  same  dew,  which  some  time  on  the  buds 
Was  wont  to  swell  like  round  and  orient  pearls. 
340 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

King  Richard  III.  when  he  argues  with  Queen 
Elizabeth  for  her  daughter's  hand  in  marriage, 
promises  with  smooth  and  brazen  villany  to 
so  offset  the  wrongs  he  had  done  her,  that: 

The  liquid  drops  of  tears  that  you  have  shed 
Shall  come  again,  transformed  to  orient  pearls. 

In  "King  John"  Elinor  speaking  to  Constance 
of  Arthur,  says,  "Draw  those  heaven  moving 
pearls  from  his  poor  eyes;"  and  in  "King 
Lear,"  one  of  the  gentlemen,  speaking  of  the 
Queen  of  France  when  she  received  the  news 
he  carried,  describes  her  mood  thus: 

Those  happy  smilets, 

That  played  on  her  ripe  lip,  seemed  not  to  know 
What  guests  were  in  her  eyes,  which  parted  thence, 
As  pearls  from  diamonds  dropp'd. 

In  "  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  Lysander  says 
to  Helen: 

To-morrow  night,  when  Phoebe  doth  behold 
Her  silver  visage  in  the  wat'ry  glass, 
Decking  with  liquid  pearl  the  bladed  grass. 

Among  his  recognitions  of  pearls  as  a  sign  of  the 
luxury  of  wealth  and  high  position,  he  makes  a 
lord  say,  in  the  "Taming  of  the  Shrew," 

Or  wilt  thou  ride?     Thy  horses  shall  be  trapp'd 
Their  harness  studded  all  with  gold  and  pearl. 

34i 


THE   PEARL 

And  in  "  King  Henry  V,"  the  King  while  deplor- 
ing the  sorrows  incident  to  kingship,  says : 

Tis  not 

The  inter-tissued  robe  of  gold  and  pearl 
That  beats  upon  the  high  shore  of  this  world. 

These  two  quotations  indicate  that  the  Roman 
custom  of  decorating  robes  and  even  the  harness 
of  horses  with  pearls  was  followed  in  Shake- 
speare's day  by  the  nobles. 

A  line  suggestive  of  the  high-esteem  in  which 
the  pearl  was  held  in  his  day,  and  often  quoted, 
occurs  in  Othello's  grand  but  heart-broken  self- 
denunciation  just  before  he  stabs  himself: 

Of  one,  whose  hand 

Like  the  base  Indian,  threw  a  pearl  away, 
Richer  than  all  his  tribe. 

It  is  evident  also  that  stories  were  current  then 
of  the  western  Indian's  ignorant  prodigality 
in  the  disposition  of  things  common  to  him  but 
very  precious  among  more  enlightened  people. 

In  "King  Richard  III,"  Duke  Clarence  sees 
in  his  dream  of  drowning,  "  Wedges  of  gold, 
great  anchors,  heaps  of  pearl." 

Several  times  the  great  dramatist  puts  the 
gem  in  somewhat  grewsome  setting.  In  "A 
Sea  Dirge"  however,  the  bare  horror  of  the 
342 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

idea  which  grins  at  one  in  similar  connections, 
is  transformed  by  the  poetry  in  which  it  is 
draped : 

These  are  pearls  that  were  his  eyes : 
Nothing  of  him  that  doth  fade, 

But  doth  suffer  a  sea-change 

Into  something  rich  and  strange. 

A  favorite  use  of  the  sea-gem  by  the  lighter 
poets  is  to  adorn  their  images  of  physical 
beauty.  In  "Don  Juan,"  Byron,  describing 
one  of  the  Turk's  houris  in  the  harem,  says: 

Was  slumbering  with  soft  breath, 
And  lips  apart,  which  show'd  the  pearls  beneath, 

and  another  poet  writes  similarly : 

Those  cherries  fairly  do  enclose 
Of  orient  pearls  a  double  row. 

Shelley  confines  his  references  to  pearls  almost 
entirely  to  descriptions  of  Nature  dew-bedecked, 
as  in  the  " Revolt  of  Islam," 

I  sate  with  Cythna;  drooping  briony,  pearled 
With  dew  from  the  mild  streamlet's  shattered  wave, 

and  another  in  "Prometheus  Unbound"  where 
the  chorus  of  spirits  sing: 

Nor  aught  save  where  some  cloud  of  dew, 
Hangs  each  a  pearl  in  the  pale  flowers 
Of  the  green  laurel  blown  anew. 

343 


THE   PEARL 

In  "Arethusa"  he  uses  them  to  enhance  the 
idea  of  regal  magnificence  in  these  lines: 

Where  the  Ocean  Powers 
Sit  on  their  pearled  thrones. 

The  poets  rarely  refer  to  the  gem  as  a  symbol 
of  spiritual  attributes  though  it  is  peculiarly 
adapted  by  its  natural  qualities  to  illustrate 
purity,  innocence,  and  other  qualities  of  the 
human  soul:  nor  is  it  often  connected  with 
religious  ideas.  Among  the  few,  Andrew 
Marvell  in  his  "Song  of  the  Emigrants  in 
Burmuda,"  avails  himself  of  it  somewhat 
prosaically  thus, 

He  cast  (of  which  we  rather  boast) 
The  Gospel's  pearl  upon  our  coast. 

One  of  the  most  poetically  beautiful  references 
ever  made  to  the  Ocean's  modest  jewel  occurs 
in  the  "The  Rosary"  by  Robert  Cameron 
Rogers. 

The  hours  I  spend  with  thee,  dear  heart, 

Are  as  a  string  of  pearls  to  me ; 
I  count  them  over  every  one  apart, 

My  rosary. 
Each  hour  a  pearl,  each  pearl  a  prayer, 

To  still  a  heart  in  absence  wrung; 
I  tell  each  bead  unto  the  end,  and  there 
A  cross  is  hung. 

344 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

No  poet  has  made  more  frequent  allusion  to 
pearls  than  Thomas  Moore.  His  poems  give 
evidence  that  he  had  read  much  of  them  in 
ancient  writings  and  was  alive  to  their  poetic 
value.  In  his  description  of  Ireland  in  "Fair- 
est! Put  on  Awhile,"  the  lines — 

Lakes,  where  the  pearl  lies  hid, 

And  caves,  where  the  gem  is  sleeping, 

were  founded  on  the  statements  of  Nennius,  a 
British  writer  of  the  IXth  century,  concerning 
Irish  pearls.  In  passing,  it  is  worthy  of  notice 
that  Nennius  recorded  also  that  the  princes  of 
Ireland  hung  them  behind  their  ears ;  a  fashion 
similar  to  that  of  Persian  and  Athenian  youth 
many  centuries  earlier.  From  Cardanus,  Moore 
learned  of  the  ancient  fable  that  pearls  were 
improved  by  leaving  them  awhile  with  doves, 
and  utilizes  the  fancy  in  "A  Dream  of  Antiq- 
uity" thus: 

As  pearls,  we're  told,  that  fondling  doves 
Have  played  with,  wear  a  smoother  whiteness. 

An  early  reference  to  the  gem  is  found  in  his 
"Odes  of  Anacreon"  No.  XXII: 

Or  even  those  envious  pearls  that  show 
So  faintly  round  that  neck  of  snow 

345 


THE  PEARL 

If  this  ode  was  really  written  by  Anacreon,  that 
poet  must  have  been  more  familiar  with  pearls 
than  some  later  Grecian  writers.  A  similar 
idea  quite  as  beautifully  expressed  occurs  in 
"The  Loves  of  the  Angels." 

Then  too  the  pearl  from  out  its  shell 

Unsightly,  in  the  sunless  sea, 
(As  'twere  a  spirit,  forced  to  dwell 

In  form  unlovely)  was  set  free, 
And  round  the  neck  of  woman  threw 
A  light  it  lent  and  borrowed  too. 

Unlike  most  of  the  poets,  Moore  does  not 
describe  the  sparkling  dew-drop  as  pearly  and 
his  references  to  tears  of  pearls  include  the 
idea  of  metamorphosis,  as  in  "The  Light  of 
the  Haram." 

And  precious  their  tears  as  that  rain  from  the  sky, 
Which  turns  into  pearls  as  it  falls  in  the  sea. 

These  lines  embody  the  ancient  Hindu  super- 
stition which  is  also  apparent  in  his  '  'Lines 
to :" 

Put  off  the  fatal  zone  you  wear, 

The  shining  pearls  around  it 
Are  tears,  that  fell  from  Virtue  there, 

The  hour  when  Love  unbound  it. 

In  his  adoration  of  female  beauty,   he  often 

holds  the  lustrous  gem  as  a  foil  to  the  exceeding 

346 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

charms  of  woman,  or  to  lift  her  to  higher  esteem 
by  holding  her,  for  preciousness,  above  the  gem. 
Beyond  all  other  things  most  lovely,  only 
woman  was  lovelier  yet.  In  "To  weave  a  Gar- 
land for  the  Rose,"  he  writes: 

Where  is  the  pearl  whose  orient  lustre 
Would  not,  beside  thee,  look  less  bright? 

And  in  one  of  the  "Odes  to  Nea,"  he  expresses 
the  jealous  regard  of  love  thus: 

If  I  were  yonder  conch  of  gold 

And  thou  the  pearl  within  it  placed, 

I  would  not  let  an  eye  behold 

The  sacred  gem  my  arms  embraced. 

Of  the  threads  in  which  the  woof  of  "The 
Genius  of  Harmony  "  is  woven,  there  is  one  that 
sings  thus  to  the  passing  of  the  shuttle : 

To  the  small  rill,  that  weeps  along 
Murmuring  o'er  beds  of  pearl. 

Betraying  as  he  did  so  frequently  in  his  poems, 
such  a  high  regard  for  the  pearl,  it  is  somewhat 
curious  that  the  gem  was  used  descriptively 
in  connection  with  himself.  N.  P.  Willis, 
describing  Thomas  Moore  as  he  met  him  at 
Lady  Blessington's  said  of  him,  "His  forehead 
shines  with  the  lustre  and  smooth  polish  of  a 
pearl." 

347 


THE   PEARL 

Schiller  takes  the  gem  from  the  warm  touch 
of  human  sentiment  and  builds  it  into  a  grand 
conception,  poetical  but  untrue  to  Nature. 
In  common  with  other  poets,  he  credits  the 
pearl  with  a  play  of  color  seldom  found  even 
to  a  limited  degree  though  it  does  occur  in  the 
mother-of-pearl.  In  "Parables  and  Riddles," 
he  describes  the  rainbow  thus: 

A  bridge  of  pearls  its  fabric  weaves, 
A  gray  sea  arching  proudly  over. 

In  "The  Celebrated  Woman"  he  alludes  twice 
to  pearls;  once  when  the  husband,  bemoaning 
the  passage  of  his  choice  vintages  down  the 
throats  of  unappreciative  celebrities,  realizes 
that  the  only  reward  from  his  spouse  for  his 
endurance  of  it  is,  "sour  looks — deep  sighs." 
Because  he  has  no  stomach  for  her  notables 
and  their  wit,  she  regrets— 

That  such  a  pearl  should  fall  to  swine 

Later  on  the  husband  refers  satirically  to  the 
meeting  of  "learned  Dons  and  folks  of  fashion" 
at  their  resorts,  where  he  says : 

All  sorts  of  Fame  sit  cheek-by-jowl, 
Pearls  in  that  string — the  Table  d'Hote. 

Few  later  writers  have  set  the  pearl  in  as  wide 
348 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

a  range  of  ideas  or  in  language  as  beautiful  as 
Edmund  Spenser.  The  tears  of  Stella  in  "The 
Mourning  Muse  of  Thestylis"  are  more  precious 
and  gem-like  than  those  in  any  lines  which  have 
followed  until  now.  In  these  lines  they  are 
priceless  jewels  royally  set. 

And  from  those  two  bright  starres  to  him  sometime  so 

dee re, 

Her  heart  sent  drops  of  pearle,  which  fell  in  foyson  downe 
Twixt  lilly  and  the  rose. 

As  a  means  to  wake  imagination  to  the  physical 
charms  of  woman  his  use  of  the  gem  is  equally 
happy  and  graceful,  for  there  is  always  a  soul 
in  the  flesh  of  his  beauty  as  when  he  depicts 
the  charms  of  a  fair  one  in  one  of  his  "  Sonnets." 

But  fairest  she,  when  so  she  doth  display 
The  gate  with  pearles  and  rubyes  richly  dight; 
Throgh  which  her  words  so  wise  do  make  their  way 
To  bear  the  message  of  her  gentle  spright. 

In  another  place  he  expresses  the  worship  of 
his  love  in  this  fashion : 

For  loe,  my  love  doth  in  her  selfe  containe 

All  this  worlds  riches  that  may  f arre  be  found ; 

If  Pearles,  her  teeth  be  Pearles,  both  pure  and  round. 

Several  of  his  poems  show  the  fashion  of 
pearls  in  his  day  as  for  instance  where  he 

349 


THE  PEARL 

describes  the   Scarlet   Lady    in   "The    Faerie 
Queene  "  as— 

A  goodly  Lady  clad  in  scarlet  red, 
Purfled  with  gold  and  pearle  of  rich  assay. 

and  Hymen  in  "  Epithalamion  " 


Her  long  loose  yellow  locks  lyke  golden  wyre, 
Sprinckled  with  perle. 

There  is  a  passing  breath  of  spice-laden  gales 
and  the  wonder  magic  of  ships  in  far-off  seas, 
carrying  to  perils  and  adventure  men  seeking 
the  treasures  of  strange  lands,  while  he  tells  in 
Virgil's  Gnat  of  the  shepherd's  content: 

Ne  ought  the  whelky  pearles  esteemeth  hee, 
Which  are  from  Indian  seas  brought  far  away. 

Poets  are  reminded  not  only  of  the  teeth  and 
neck  of  beauty  by  the  luster  of  the  pearl  but 
of  the  forehead  also.  Whittier  like  Tennyson 
gives  to  woman  a  brow  of  pearl.  In  "Mem- 
ories "  the  girl  has — 

Eyes  glad  with  smiles,  and  brow  of  pearl, 

and  in  "Stanzas,"  he  places  the  beauty  of  flesh 
above  that  of  the  dainty  jewel  thus : 

O'er  a  forehead  more  pure  than  the  Parian  stone — 

Shaming  the  light  of  those  Orient  pearls 

Which  bind  o'er  its  whiteness  thy  soft  wreathing  curls. 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

Similarly  Heinrich  Heine  in  Longfellow's  trans- 
lation of  ''The  Sea  hath  its  Pearls"  says: 

And  fairer  than  pearls  and  stars 
Flashes  and  beams  my  love. 

Probably  in  no  poem  is  the  pearl  referred  to  so 
frequently  or  with  so  wide  significance  as  in 
Whittier's  "The  Vaudois  Teacher."  The  mis- 
sionary in  his  guise  of  peddler  having  obtained 
an  audience  with  the  fair  chatelaine,  while 
extolling  his  wares,  says: 

And  my  pearls  are  pure  as  thy  own  fair  neck,  with  whose 

radiant  light  they  vie. 

Naturally,  this  wisdom  of  the  serpent  with 
which  his  innocence  was  garnished  brought 
favorable  response: 

And  the  lady  smiled  on  the  worn  old  man  through  the 

dark  and  clustering  curls, 

Which  veiled  her  brow  as  she  bent  to  view  his  silks  and 

glittering  pearls. 

After  she  had  bought  of  his  trinkets,  the  old 
teacher  carefully  introduces  the  covered  object 
of  his  visit. 

Oh,  lady  fair,  I  have  yet  a  gem  which  a  purer  lustre  flings, 
Than  the  diamond  flash  of  the  jewelled  crown  on  the  lofty 

brow  of  Kings, 

A  wonderful  pearl  of  exceeding  price,  whose  virtue  shall 

not  decay. 


THE  PEARL 

This  statement  at  once  arouses  a  keen  interest, 
for  in  those  days  great  gems  came  from  unex- 
pected sources  and  by  unlikely  hands  and 
coming  seldom,  excited  desire  to  an  extent 
unknown  in  these  abundant  times.  Glancing 
at  the  mirrored  pearls  in  her  own  hair  the 
lady  says: 

Bring  forth  thy  pearl  of  exceeding  worth,  thou  traveller 

gray  and  old — 

And  name  the  price  of  thy  precious  gem,  and  my  page 

shall  count  thy  gold. 

Here  is  the  golden  opportunity  of  the  zealot. 
From  its  place  of  concealment  beneath  the 
tempting  wares  in  his  pack  he  takes  a  shabby 
little  book  and  gives  it  to  her  saying: 

Here,  lady  fair,  is  the  pearl  of  price,  may  it  proove  as 

such  to  thee, 

Nay — keep  thy  gold — I  ask  it  not;   for  the  Word  of  God 

is  free! 

Nor  does  the  religious  mind  of  Whittier  fail  to 
remember  the  gates  of  pearl,  for  in  "Ego"  he 
speaks  of 

The  pearl  gates  of  the  Better  Land. 

Carlyle  makes  reference  to  the  gem  in  a  line 

greater  in  conception  and  more  poetic  than  most 

of  those  which  occur  in  the  rhymes  of  the 

35* 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

poets — "  She  died  in  beauty,  like  a  pearl  dropped 
from  some  diadem." 

In  Ruffini's  "Dr.  Antonio,"  man  and  woman 
are  set  in  marriage  as  a  foil  and  complement  of 
each  other  though  the  metaphor  shows  some 
misunderstanding  of  the  qualities  of  gems,  for 
black  diamonds  are  not  as  fiery  as  others.  The 
lines  are: 

The  fiery  black  diamond  casting  lustre  over  the 
Oriental  pearl:  the  Oriental  pearl  in  return  lending 
softness  to  the  black  diamond. 

Dryden  does  not  forget  pearls  when  he  capari- 
sons the  royal  mighty  and  in  "Palamon  and 
Arcite"  fitly  thus  describes  Emetrius,  King  of 
Inde: 

His  surcoat  o'er  his  arms  was  cloth  of  Thrace, 
Adorned  with  pearls  all  orient,  round  and  great. 

It  is  remarkable  that  so  many  poets  have  seen 
in  the  pearl  a  simile  for  raindrops  and  dew. 
Among  them,  Browning  in  the  song  from 
"Pippa  Passes,"  sees — 

The  hill-side's  dew-pearled. 

At  its  best,  the  pearl  is  not  luminous,  neither 
does  it  flash  nor  sparkle:  the  quality  of  it  is 
softly  lustrous  as  of  light  that  smolders;  but 

23  353 


THE  PEARL 

transferring  by  imagery  the  mist- white  texture 
of  dew  when  it  is  spread  over  leaf  and  grass 
blade,  to  the  transparent  dew-drop,  poets  see 
in  the  sparkling  globule,  which  in  the  sun  is  of 
diamantine  brilliancy,  a  simile  of  the  pearl. 

In  "By  the  Fireside"  however,  Browning 
creates  a  rain  of  pearls,  a  truer  figure  than 
pearly  rain-drops : 

Break  the  rosary  in  a  pearly  rain, 
And  gather  what  we  let  fall. 

The  metaphors  of  Lowell  are  more  true  to  the 
nature  of  the  pearl  and  its  characteristics  than 
those  of  many  poets.  One,  seldom  used  though 
most  appropriate,  occurs  in  "The  First  Snow 
Fall." 

And  the  poorest  twig  on  the  elm-tree 
Was  ridged  inch  deep  with  pearl. 

Another  instance  of  combined  truth  and  poetry 
may  be  found  in  "An  Invitation": 

A  cloud  Byzantium  newly  born, 

With  flickering  spires  and  dome  of  pearl. 

And  in  "Pictures  from  Appledore"  the  same 
poet  in  the  embodiment  of  a  delightful  idea  in 
words  says  of  the  moon: 

Rather  to  call  it  the  canoe 
Hollowed  out  of  a  single  pearl. 

354 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

In  these  illustrations,  imagination  is  true  to 
nature  on  either  hand,  for  the  beady  ridges  of 
the  half  melted  or  frozen  snow  on  the  tree 
twigs,  the  soft  luster  of  a  white  cloud  dome 
and  the  pale  round  moon,  alike  are  character- 
ized by  beauties  which  are  pearly.  In  his  more 
involved  metaphor  the  same  nice  avoidance  of 
incongruity  is  noticeable.  Though  raindrops 
are  not  pearly,  the  white  fringe  of  a  shore- 
driven  wave  is,  which  he  notes  in  " Sea- Weed" : 

For  the  same  wave  that  rims  the  Carib  shore 
With  momentary  brede  of  pearl  and  gold. 

There  is  a  hint  of  Cleopatra  and  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham  in  his  lines  "To  H.  W.  L." 

Let  them  drink  molten  pearls  nor  dream  the  cost ; 

and  in  the  lines  from  "Memoria  Positum" 
there  is  an  understanding  of  the  processes  by 
which  the  gem  grows: 

This  death  hath  far  choicer  ends 
Than  slowly  to  impearl  in  hearts  of  friends ; 

and  in  the  poetic  fancy  in  "  A  Familiar  Epistle  to 
a  Friend "- 

Old  sorrows  crystallized  into  pearls. 

Nor  does  he  omit  the  time-honored  custom  of 

poets  to  place  the  gem  among  the  chief  jewels 

355 


THE   PEARL 

of  the  great  and  in  the  mouth  of  beauty,  for 
in  "The  Singing  Leaves'*  he  makes  the  King's 
eldest  daughter  ask  of  her  royal  father  when  he 
journeys : 

O,  bring  me  pearls  and  diamonds  great, 

and  in  "  A  Fable  for  Critics  "  he  says : 

Your  goddess  of  freedom,  a  tight,  buxom  girl, 
With  lips  like  a  cherry  and  teeth  like  a  pearl. 

Bryant  does  not  often  allude  to  pearls,  but  in 
two  instances,  both  in  "The  Flood  of  Years," 
they  appear  in  beautiful  setting.  In  the  first: 

A  beam  like  that  of  moonlight  turns  the  spray 
To  glistening  pearls. 

Later  on,  describing  the  ocean  of  the  past,  he 
sees — 

Dim  glimmerings  of  lost  jewels,  far  within 
The  sleeping  waters,  diamond,  sardonyx, . 
Ruby  and  topaz,  pearl  and  chrysolite. 

The  general  use  of  pearls  in  the  barbaric  splendor 
of  the  great  in  the  days  of  Rome  and  Egypt 
and  Persia,  appears  in  Tasso's  "Jerusalem 
Delivered."  In  the  wizard's  dwelling: 

Nor  failed  there  urns  of  crystal,  pearl,  and  gold, 

and, 

High  on  the  Soldan's  helm,  in  scales  of  pearl 
A  rampant  dragon  grinn'd  malignant  things; 

and  also, 

356 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

The  Pastors  of  the  flocks 
Have  on  their  sacerdotal  albs,  which  pass 
In  front  divided  o'er  their  golden  frocks, 
Clasp'd  with  aigraffes  of  pearl. 

In  the  review  of  the  oriental  hordes,  Armida's 
car  is  thus  described, 

Her  car,  that  glorious  as  Aurora's  roll'd, 

With  rubies,  pearls,  and  hyacinths  glisten'd  clear. 

Among  those  who  passed  the  Egyptian  prince, 
were: 

The  Islanders  with  fleecy  curls, 
Whose  homes  are  compassed  by  th'  Arabian  waves ; 
By  whom  those  shells  which  breed  the  Persian  pearls 
Are  dived  and  fish'd  for,  in  their  green  sea  caves. 

The  name  of  the  gem  is  used  in  rare  fashion  in 
picturing  the  enchanted  wood  through  which 
Rinaldo  wanders: 

Impearl'd  with  manna  was  each  fresh  leaf  nigh. 

And  twice  does  the  sweat  of  the  human  face 
become  pearly  in  the  poet's  imagination:  once 
when  Armida  watches  Rinaldo  sleeping: 

The  living  heat-dews  that  impearl'd  his  face, 
She  with  her  veil  wiped  tenderly  away. 

In  the  second  instance,  speaking  of  Armida, 
the  poet  says: 

She  dies 

Of  the  sweet  passion,  and  the  heat  that  pearls, 
Yet  more  her  ardent  aspect  beautifies. 

357 


THE   PEARL 

Thomson  sees  pearls  only  in  the  dew-impearled 
earth,  and  one  must  admit,  after  looking  upon 
the  liquid  globules  hanging  in  rows  from  the 
spreading  twigs  of  trees  before  the  morning  sun 
has  found  them  in  their  shaded  quarters,  that 
the  pendent  spheres  are  suggestive,  and  that 
the  poet's  eye  needs  but  little  assistance  from 
imagination  to  see  in  them  the  soft  round  gems 
of  the  ocean. 

In  all  ages,  prose  and  fiction  have  treated  of 
pearls  as  a  form  of  exceeding  preciousness  and  a 
chief  evidence  of  high  station  and  barbaric 
splendor.  The  lute  of  poetry  has  held  few 
additional  strings.  Modern  writers  have  added 
little  to  the  imaginations  of  the  ancients.  All 
the  changes  made  by  successive  poets  have  been 
rung  on  the  tears,  dew-drops,  and  beauty's 
teeth,  handed  down  from  long  ago. 

The  wide  ranges  of  the  pearl's  modest  worth, 
exalted  purity,  and  singular  beauty,  yet  remain 
to  illustrate  the  thoughts  of  future  genius. 
Imagination  has  not  yet  brooded  often  over  the 
humble  and  distorted  creatures,  whose  gnarled 
and  twisted  forms,  lying  among  their  myriad 
shapely  brethren  are  evidence  of  a  precious 

358 


PEARLS  IN  LITERATURE 

sacrifice  of  self  to  leave  a  heritage  of  beauty; 
nor  dreamed  of  the  silent  acres  under  turbulent 
waters  where  the  gem,  one  day  to  adorn  the 
neck  of  beauty  or  the  diadem  of  royalty,  is 
reared.  What  play  for  imagination  lies  between 
the  birth  of  this  creation  of  one  of  the  humblest 
of  Earth's  creatures,  and  the  high  placement 
to  which  it  rises  as  soon  as  it  is  discovered. 

There  are  deserted  wastes  of  sand  and  water 
under  torrid  skies,  populated  almost  momen- 
tarily with  teeming  multitudes  whose  jargon 
fills  the  former  silences  with  a  world  wide 
medley  of  tongues.  As  in  a  dream,  the  trem- 
ulous air  is  stirred  by  the  struggling  movement 
of  naked  slaves,  turbanned  orientals,  men  from 
all  lands  of  the  Occident,  the  moving  throng 
weaving  constantly  new  patterns  from  the 
variegated  colors  and  fantastic  costumes  of  liv- 
ing threads.  And  everywhere,  beneath  the 
prosaic  motion  of  labor  and  trading,  is  the 
quiver  of  hope,  the  excitement  of  the  gambler ; 
the  poetry  of  human  passions,  unseen,  but  felt. 

There  are  in  unfrequented  seas,  where  some 
lonely  atoll  draws  its  circle  round  a  still  lagoon, 
treasures  greater  than  its  cargo  and  the  stately 

359 


THE  PEARL 

ship  sailing  heedless  by.  So  like  the  undiscov- 
ered pearls  of  the  ocean's  bed,  the  universe 
holds  an  exhaustless  store  of  thoughts  and 
truths  for  those  who  come  after  the  discoverers 
of  this  age.  Thought  runs  in  grooves  and  the 
grooves  outlast  many  generations;  scarcely  in 
a  cycle  does  one  look  over  the  ridge  and  find  a 
species  foreign  to  the  rut. 

Within  the  walls  which  the  past  builds  for 
the  present  it  is  more  easy  to  adopt  than  to 
bring  forth,  and  so  the  ancient  metaphors,  age 
after  age,  are  with  some  changes  of  raiment 
thrown  back  upon  the  world  again.  But  in 
this  new  era  of  acquisition,  while  this  sea-gem 
is  again  lifted  to  the  serene  heights  of  most 
exalted  favor,  perhaps  it  will  not  only  shine 
upon  the  persons  of  the  fair,  but  adorn,  in 
simile  and  metaphor  as  beautiful  as  the  old, 
the  pages  of  romance  and  poetry. 


36o 


GLOSSARY 


GLOSSARY 


As  ALONE. — Name  given  on  the  California  coast  and  in 
the  United  States  to  the  Haliotis. 

BALL-PEARL. — Name  given  to  round  pearls  by  pearlers  at 
the  inland  fisheries  of  the  United  States. 

BAROQUE. — A  pearly  formation  of  irregular  shape. 

BASE. — A  basic  price,  subject  to  the  square  of  the  pearl's 
weight. 

BASKETS. — Brass  sieves  used  in  India  for  separating 
pearls  of  different  sizes. 

BLACK-SHELL. — Pearl  oyster  shells  of  which  the  nacreous 
lining  has  a  black  edge. 

BLISTER. — A  piece  of  the  mother-of-pearl  lining  of  a 
pearl-oyster  shell,  raised  above  the  surface  like  a 
blister. 

BLUEBACKS. — Shell  of  a  variety  of  Haliotis. 

BLUE-PEARLS. — Dark,  slaty  blue-white  pearls,  principally 
from  the  Mexican  coast. 

BOMBAY  PEARLS. — Fine  pearls  from  the  Arabian  and  Red 
Seas,  so  named  because  marketed  through  that  city. 

BUTTON  PEARLS. — Shaped  like  a  dome,  high  or  low, 
rising  from  a  plane  and  called  "high  buttons," 
"buttons"  or  "low  buttons,"  accordingly. 

CLAMMER. — One  who  fishes  for  mussels  by  dredging  for 
the  shells  principally. 

DEAD  PEARLS. — Pearls  with  a  chalky  or  waxy  skin  having 
little  or  no  luster. 

DRESS. — Diving  apparatus  consisting  of  a  one  piece  dress 
from  the  neck  down,  corselet,  helmet,  air-pipes  and 
life-line. 

DROP-PEARL.— Ovoid,  or  obovoid,  not  necessarily  of  per- 
fect shape. 

DRILLED  PEARLS. — Pearls  with  one  hole  for  setting  on 
peg,  or  quite  through  the  centre  for  stringing.  Chinese 
drill  two  or  three  small  holes  half  way  between  cir- 
cumference and  bottom,  for  holding-wires, 

363 


THE   PEARL 

EGG  PEARLS. — Ovoid:   shaped  like  an  egg. 

FLAT. — In  connection  with  price  quotation  means,  price 

per  grain  regardless  of  size. 
FRESH -WATER     PEARLS. — Pearls     taken     from     inland 

streams. 

GREEN  EARS. — Shell  of  Haliotis  having  green  mother-of- 
pearl  lining. 

HALF  PEARLS. — Round  pearls  sawed  in  half. 
HELMET. — Diving  head-gear. 
LINGAHS. — Pearl  oyster  shells  from  the  Arabian  Sea  and 

others  of  similar  size  and  quality. 
MADRAS    PEARLS. — Fine   white   pearls   from   the    Ceylon 

fisheries,  so  called  because  marketed  principally  in 

that  city. 

MANUL. — Loose  or  soft  sand  sea-botton  (Ceylon). 
MULTIPLE. — Price   of  pearls  subject  to  the  multiple   of 

weight. 

MUSSEL-EGG. — Name  given  to  pearls  by  Tennesseans. 
NACRE. — The  substance  of  which  pearls  and  the  lining  of 

pearl-shells  consists. 

NAKED  DIVING. — Diving  without  any  appliances. 
ORIENT. — As  applied  to  pearls,  the  luster  of  the  skin. 
ORIENTAL   PEARLS. — Generally,   pearls  from  salt  water; 

specifically,  pearls  from  the  Indian  Seas. 
OUNCE  PEARLS. — Poor  grades  sold  by  the  ounce. 
PAAR. — Ceylon  name  for  rock  or  hard   bottom    oyster- 
bed. 

PEARLER. — One  who  fishes  for  mussels  for  the  pearls. 
PEAR-SHAPE. — Shaped  like  a  pear;  obovoid. 
PEELER. — A  pearl  with  an  imperfect  skin,  the  removal 

of  which  would  improve  the  pearl. 
RED-EARS. — Abalone  shell  with  pearly  red  interior. 
ROSE-PEARLS. — Pink,  iridescent,  fresh- water  baroques. 
SEED-PEARLS. — Vary  small  round  pearls. 
SLUGS. — Nacreous  excrescences  from  the  Unio. 
SKIN. — As  applied  to  pearls,  the  outer  layer  of  nacre. 
SQUARE. — Method  of  reckoning  the  cost  of  a  pearl  of  any 

size  at  a  lot  price,  by  the  square  of  price  given,  with 

the  grain  as  a  unit. 

364 


GLOSSARY 

STRAWBERRY-PEARLS. — Large,  pink,  iridescent  and 
lustrous  baroques,  fairly  regular  in  shape,  with  the 
appearance  of  being  thickly  sanded  under  the  nacre. 

SWEET- WATER  PEARLS. — Pearls  from  fresh-water. 

TRUE-PEARLS. — Pearls  formed  of  nacre  as  distinguished 
from  similar  formations  which  are  not  nacreous. 

TWINNED-PEARLS. — Pearls  enveloped  together  in  one  or 
more  layers  of  nacre. 

WHITE-SHELL. — Pearl-oyster  shells  with  nacre  white  to 
the  edge. 

YELLOW-SHELL. — Pearl-oyster  shells  with  yellowish  nacre. 


365 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

OF  PEARLS  AND  SHELLS 
FROM  THE  VARIOUS  FISHERIES 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

OF  PEARLS  AND  SHELLS 
FROM  THE  VARIOUS  FISHERIES 


ARABIAN  SEA. — Pearls  have  fine  orient,  but  the  color  in- 
clines to  yellow. 

Shells  are  larger  than  those  of  Ceylon  but  of  little 
value  for  mother-of-pearl:  iridescent,  black  edge 
m.  of  p. ;  known  as  Lingahs. 
AROE. — Pearls   usually   good   orient;  many  of   irregular 

shape. 

Shells  are    of  medium  size,   black  edge  and  irides- 
cent. 
AUCKLAND. — Pearls  white,  but  not  remarkable  for  luster. 

Shells,  medium  size,  black  edge  m.  of  p. 
AUSTRALIA. — Pearls  of  Australia  generally  are  of  good 
color,  but  not  as  lustrous  as  those  of  other  sec- 
tions. 

Shells  usually  large  and  heavy  and  the  nacre  is  white. 
BAND  AS. — Pearls  good. 

Shells  are  small  but  heavy  and  good;  black  to  green- 
ish edge  nacre. 
CEYLON. — Pearls  average  finest  in  the  world  for  orient 

and  color. 

Shells,  small  and  valueless  for  m.  of  p. 
COSTA  RICA. — Pearls  good  average. 

Shells,  medium  size,  greenish  yellow  edge. 
EGYPTIAN  (RED  SEA). — Pearls  good  but  run  yellow. 
Shells,  medium  size  and  nacre  has  greenish  edge. 
FIJI. — Practically  the  same  as  the  Bandas. 
GAMBIER. — Pearls  good,  many  fancy  colors. 

Shells,  large,  fine  nacre  with  very  black  edge. 
HAITI. — Pearls  fine,  shells  good. 

369 


THE  PEARL 

MANILLA. — (Includes   Batjan,    Bima,    Ceram,    Salawatti, 

Sooloo,  etc.)     Pearls,  good  color  and  orient. 
Shells,  large,  good,  yellow  edge  nacre. 
MERGUIAN   ARCHIPELAGO. — Pearls   and  shells  similar  to 

the  Manillas. 
MEXICO   AND   PANAMA. — Pearls  fair;    blacks,   grays  and 

fancy  colors  often  fine. 

Shells,  medium  size:    nacre  has  greenish  edge. 
SOUTH  SEA  ISLANDS. — Pearls  usually  fine. 

Shells   generally  large,   heavy   and  fine   black  edge 

m.  of  p. 
VENEZUELA. — Pearls,  good  luster  and  color — many  fine 

baroques. 
Shells:   small,  beautifully  iridescent,  but  valueless. 

PEARLS. 

Hardness,  3.5 — 4       Sp.  Gr.,  1.59 — 1.62 
COMPOSITION. 

Carbonate  of  Lime 91-72 

Organic  matter 5.94 

Water 2.34 


370 


INDEX 


Abalone,  92,  170,  199,  244. 
Acapulco,  203. 
Advance  of  price,  277. 
Aelonians,  93. 
Alexander,  50. 
Ancient  fisheries,  212. 
Angel's  tears,  315. 
Anselm,    Archbishop    of    Canter- 
bury, 49. 
Aquila  Jewels,  85. 
Arabian  Sea,  49,  51,  201. 
Aragonite,  167. 
Aripo,  219. 
Arkansas,  discovery  of  peark  in, 

259- 

Aroo  Islands,  199,  202. 
Aryans,  64. 

Atokha,  Virgin  of,  329. 
Amis  Marina,  246. 
Aurora  Shells,  246. 
Australia,  201,  249. 
Avicula  fucata,  127. 

squamulosa,  127,  239. 

B 

Bagdad,  213. 

Bahamas,  95. 

Bahrein,  212. 

Ball  pearl,  44. 

Banda  Islands,  202. 

Baroques,  82,  91,  155,  161. 

Base  price,  276. 

Baskets,  228. 

Batjan,  200. 

Bazaruto  Islands,  200,  233. 

Beira,  233. 

Beresford  Hope  pearl,  324,  326. 

Black  Shell,  144. 


Blister,  92. 

Blue-point,  268. 

Bochart,  5  7- 

Bones,  pearls  called,  50,  61. 

Boss,  140. 

Breastplate,  Jewish  High  Priest's 

56,  61. 

Breeding  of  pearls,  312. 
Brown  pearls,  329. 
Bull-head,  266. 
Butterfly,  268. 
Byssus,  243. 


Cacique,  76. 

Calcospherules,  154. 

Caligula,  52. 

Campeche,  Gulf  of,  241. 

Cape  San  Lucas,  242. 

Cariaco,  Gulf  of,  238. 

Castiglione  necklace,  84. 

Catifa,  326. 

Celebrated  Pearls,  324. 

Ceram,  200. 

Cestodes,  173. 

Chank,  15,  98. 

Charles  V.,  47. 

Charlotte  Bay,  249. 

Cheval  paar,  221. 

Chilaw  pearl  banks,  219. 

Chiriqui,  237. 

Chunam,  231. 

Clammers,  262,  282. 

Clam  pearls,  97. 

Cleopatra's  pearl,  52,  320,  326. 

Clinch  River,  260,  263. 

Clione,  154. 

Clodius,  52,  327. 

Coatzacoalcos,  241. 


371 


THE  PEARL 


Coche,  238. 
Colombia,  236,  241. 
Color  of  pearls,  101. 
Columbus,  46. 
Conch,  16,  94. 

Conchiolin,  133- 

Cortez,  46,  242. 

Cracked  pearls,  119,  3 °*. 

Crotalia,  S3,  80. 

Cubagua,  46,  238. 

Culture  pearls,  299. 


Dahlak,  212. 
Dasyus,  64. 
Death  of  Pearls,  316. 
Deer-horn,  267. 
De  Soto,  46,  47.  76. 
Devadatta,  98. 
Dew-drop  origin  of  P.,  311- 
Diamonds,  44,  5^.  7°- 
Diving,  Dress,  178,  188,  192, 
Naked,  178. 

Dredging,  282. 

Dress,  189. 

Dudley  pearls,  329- 

Dutch  Indies,  200,  232. 


Ear  of  Venus,  93- 
Ear-shell,  93,  245- 
Ecuador,  203,  237. 
Edward  VII.,  82. 
Elenchi,  80. 
Elizabeth,  Queen,  48. 
El  Tirano,  237. 
Exmouth  Gulf,  249- 


Facts  and  Fancies,  311. 

Farsan,  212. 

Fiji  Islands,  202. 

File-fish,  174. 

Fisheries,  Arabian  Sea,  212. 

Ancient,  201,  255. 

Australian,  194,  202,  249- 


sheries,  British,  255. 
Campeche,  gulf  of,  241. 
Ceylon,  201,  215,  289. 
Colombia,  237,  241- 
Dutch  Indies,  232. 
Ecuador,  237. 
English,  242. 
German  East  Africa,  234. 

Haiti,  248. 

Indian,  214. 

Irish,  255. 

La  Paz,  242. 

Lower  California,  242. 

Madras,  215. 

Merguian    archipelago,     201, 

234- 

Mexican,  242. 
New  Caledonia,  234. 
Nicaragua,  236. 
Omagh,  256. 
Panama,  237. 
Persian  Gulf,  212. 
Philippines,  248. 
Portuguese  East  Africa,  233. 
Red  Sea,  an. 
Scotch,  256. 
So.  African,  257. 
Venezuela,  237,  239- 
Fishing,    Ceylon    gov't    notifica- 
tion, 221. 

Depth  of,  225,  232. 
Mexican,  Season  of,  243- 
U.  S.  mussel,  258. 
Polynesian,  183. 
primitive  method,  179-     . 
time  under  water,  225. 
Tongarewa  Islands,  186. 
with  dress,  188. 
prices  realized,  227,  289. 
Flodden  Field,  320. 
Fluter  mussel,  260. 
Francis  I.,  48. 
Fresh-water  pearls,  90. 


Gambier,  199-  203  328. 
Genesis  of  Pearls,  127. 


372 


INDEX 


Gilbert,   Bishop  of  Limerick,     49 

Goajira,  239. 

Government  Notification,  221. 

Gresham,  Sir  Thomas,  48,  321- 

Guatemala,  242. 

Guayaquil,  237,  287. 

Gulf  of  California,  203. 

Campeche,  204,  241. 
Gwaai  River,  257. 

H 

Habitat  of  oysters  and  mussels, 

199. 

Haiti,  205,  248. 
Haliotis,  16,  93,  206,  244. 

cracherodii,  247. 

iris,  246. 

mida,  246. 

rufescens,  247. 

splendens,  247. 

tuberculata,  245. 
Heel-splitter,  268. 


Ichiaha,  76. 

Illinois,  discovery  of  pearls,  259. 
Imitation  pearls,  295. 
Imperfections,  in. 
Incas,  44,  46,  76. 
Inhambane,  200. 
Interference,  130. 
Iridescence,  130. 


Jamboneau,  235. 

James  IV.,  320. 

Japan,  202. 

Jolo,  248. 

Julius  Cassar,  52,  81,  256,  327. 


Kalanchu,  231. 
Katar,  212. 
Kshattriya,  27,  64. 


Lampsilis  anodontoides,  267. 

fallaciosus,  267. 

ligamentinus,  267. 

rectus,  267. 

La  Pellegrina,  324,  326. 
La  Paz,  242. 
La  Peregrina,  324,  327. 
Largest  Pearl,  326. 
Lesbos,  50. 
Lingah,  201,  212. 
Lohia,  211. 
Lollia  Pollena,  52. 
Loreto,  242. 
Louis  XIII.,  49. 
Lower  California,  242. 

M 

Macanao,  238. 

Macassar,  233. 

Madura,  215. 

Mafia,  206,  234. 

Malabar,  63,  179. 

Manaar,  216. 

Manchadi,  231. 

Manduck,  179. 

Mantle,  132. 

Maracaibo,  239. 

Margarita,  238. 

Maria  Theresa,  49. 

Marichchikaddi,  221. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  48. 

Massawa,  211. 

Mathilde,  Princess,  84. 

Maturity  of  Pearl  Oysters,  205. 

Mazatlan,  242. 

Meleagrina,  90,  127. 

Merguian  Archipelago,  200,  234. 

Methods  of  Fishing,  177. 

Mindanao,  248. 

Montezuma,  46. 

Moros,  182. 

Mother-paar,  219. 

Mounds,  Indian,  40,  45.  7<5.  257. 

Mucket,  266. 


373 


THE  PEARL 


Mud  blisters,  92. 

Multiple,  276. 

Mussel,  90,  257. 

Mussel-egg,  43,  116. 

Mussel  Anodonta  herculea,  297. 

blue- point,  268. 

bull  head,  266. 

butterfly,  268. 

deer-horn,  267. 

fluter,  260. 

Hatchet-back,  268. 

heel-splitter,  268. 

Lake,  260. 

margaritifera,  255. 

mucket,  266. 

nigger-head,  266. 

painter's,  255. 

pearl,  255. 

red,  234. 

swollen-river,  255. 

sand-shell,  267. 

warty-back,  266. 

wash-board,  260. 
Mutton-fish,  245. 
Mytilene,  50. 

N 

Nassau  pearls,  96. 

Nautillus,  1 6. 

New  Caledonia,  172,  202,  234. 

New  Guinea,  202. 

Nicaragua,  204. 

Nigger-head,  136,  266. 

Nomenclature,  56. 

Notch  Brook  pearl,  258,  330. 

Nuclei  of  pearls,  153,  174,  272. 


Oahu,  206. 

Ohio  pearls,  258. 

Old  Testament  reference,  56. 

Omagh,  49,  256. 

Oriental  pearls,  89. 

Origin  of  pearls  (fables),  311. 

Ormer,  93,  246. 


Painter's  mussel,  255. 
Panama,  203. 
Paraguana,  239. 
Parasites,  174. 
Pearls,  Abalone,  92,  156. 

assortment  of,  228. 

baroque,  155,  161,  279. 

black,  97,  105. 

blister,  92. 

blue,  104,  278. 

Bombay,  213. 

button,  155,  1 60. 

clam,  97,  156. 

colors  of,  101. 

conch,  94,  156. 

cracked,  119. 

culture,  298. 

fancy,  105,  202. 

free,  154. 

fresh- water,  89,  90,  279. 

hammered,  120. 

hinge,  91. 

imitation,  295. 

Japan,  298. 

Madras,  102,  215,  277. 

Nassau,  96. 

oriental,  89. 

Panama,  104,  204. 

pear-shape,  80,  161. 

rose,  91. 

seed,  231. 

Shah  of  Persia,  326. 

slugs,  280. 

soft,  116. 

strawberry,  91. 

true,  89. 

twinned,  159. 

wing,  91,  280. 
Pearl-Oysters,  199. 
Pearlers,  262,  282. 
Peelers,  115,  248,  302. 
Peeling  pearls,  115,  302. 
Periya  paar,  220. 
Persian  Gulf,  50,  201. 
Perthshire  Tay  pearls,  256. 


374 


INDEX 


Peru,  46,  204. 

Philip  II.,  241. 

Pinna,  16,  206,  235. 

Plagiola  securis,  268. 

Pleurobena  aesopus,  266. 

Pliny,  52,  54,  66. 

Polynesians,  183. 

Pope  Leo  X.  pearl,  328. 

Price  of  pearls,  275. 

Punta  de  Santa  Cristoval,  243- 


Quadrula  ebena,  266. 

pustulosa,  266. 

undulata,  268. 
Queen  pearl,  330. 


Rana  of  D  hoi  pur,  78. 
Ravaillac,  320. 
Red  Current,  253. 
Red  Sea,  51,  200. 
Rhodesia,  Southern,  206. 
Rio,  Hacha,  237. 
Roman  fashions,  80,  342. 
Rose  pearls,  91,  266. 

S 

Sandalchin,  57. 

Sandaztros,  57. 

Sand-shells,  267. 

San  Juan  del  Norte,  236. 

Season  for  mussel  fishing,  270. 

Seed  pearls,  231. 

Shankar,  15,  31. 

Shangani  River,  257. 

Shankhasura,  98. 

Sharks  Bay,  249. 

Shark  charmer,  224. 

Shell  Australian,  145,  202. 

black,  144,  199,  202. 

bullock,  204,  236. 

distorted,  172,  252. 

Egyptian,  200. 

grayish,  145,  200. 

greenish,  145,  211. 

Lingah,  212. 


Shell  Mexican,  204. 

Panama,  204,  236. 

Port  Darwin,  249. 

price  of,  235,  251,  270,  290. 

red- ears,  206. 

Sydney,  249. 

Tuamotu,  170,  200. 

Unio,  136,  200,  211. 

Venezuelan,  200. 

West  Australian,  249. 

white,  145,  171. 

yellow,  145,  200. 

young,  205. 

Shoulder  of  mutton,  235. 
Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  48,  328. 
Sleeping  Lion,  328. 
Slugs,  280. 
Soliman  Pearl,  328. 
Sophie,  Queen,  84. 
Southern  Rhodesia,  206,  257. 
Spat,  169. 

Spawning  time,  271. 
Spice  Islands,  202. 
Spiritu  Santo,  46. 
Spruce,  John,  284. 
Strawberry  pearls,  91,  266. 
Strombus  gigas,  94,  206. 
Sugar  River,  264. 
Sulu  Islands,  202,  248. 
Superstitions,  181,  311. 
Suran,  253. 

Sweet- water  pearls,  90,  279. 
Swollen  River  mussel,  255. 
Symphynota  complanata,  268. 


Tahiti,  203. 
Tampa  Bay,  46. 
Targum,  57. 
Ta vernier,  49,  325. 
Tiburon,  242. 
Tinnevalli,  215. 
Tongarewa  Islands,  186. 
Travancore,  25,  98. 
Tremellius,  57. 
Tritigonia  verrucosa,  267. 


375 


THE  PEARL 


True  pearls,  89. 

Tuamotu  Archipelago,  200,  203. 

Turbinella  Scolymus,  98. 

Turtle-backs,  92. 

Tuticorin,  215. 

U 

Umbo,  139. 

Unio,  90,  127,  136,  206. 

Unit  of  weight,  276. 


Variation  in  weight  of  P.,  241, 

Varieties,  89. 

Venezuela,  96,  237. 

Venus  ear-shell,  16,  93,  245. 

Venus  Genetrix,  81. 

Veragua,  237. 

Vishnu,  15,  98. 


W 

Warty-back,  266. 

Weight  of  mussel  shells,  269. 

meat,  269. 

Westphalia  Queen  necklace,  84. 
White  bones,  50,  61. 
White  shell,  145,  199. 
Wisconsin  pearls,  259. 


X  Rays,  231. 

Y 
Yellow  shells,  200. 

Z 
Zanzibar,  200,  234. 


376 


1iDMI3UW=»»^:^'A^7  DAYS 

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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


